Authors/Thomas Aquinas/posteriorum/L1/Lect9

Lecture 9 How something is said to be predicated of all

Latin	English
	English translation by Fabian R. Larcher, O.P.
	Lecture 9 HOW SOMETHING IS SAID TO BE PREDICATED OF ALL
lib. 1 l. 9 n. 1 Postquam philosophus ostendit quid sit syllogismus demonstrativus, in parte ista incipit ostendere ex quibus et qualibus sit. Et circa hoc tria facit; primo, continuat se ad praecedentia; secundo, interponit quaedam quae sunt necessaria ad praecognoscendum; ibi: primum autem determinabimus etc.; tertio, determinat propositum, scilicet ex quibus sit syllogismus demonstrativus; ibi: si igitur est demonstrativa et cetera.	After showing what a demonstrative syllogism is, the Philosopher in this section begins to show the nature and characteristics of the things that comprise a demonstration. Concerning this he does three things. First, he connects this with what has already been established. Secondly, he explains certain matters that must be understood first (73a25). Thirdly, he establishes what he had in mind, namely, to show what and of what sort are the things that constitute a syllogism (74b5) [L. 12].
lib. 1 l. 9 n. 2 Dicit ergo primo, quod quia dictum est supra, quod impossibile est aliter se habere in definitione eius quod est scire, necessarium erit id quod scitur secundum demonstrationem. Quid autem sit quod est secundum demonstrationem scire exponit, dicens quod demonstrativa scientia est quam habemus in habendo demonstrationem, idest quam ex demonstratione acquirimus. Et sic habetur quod demonstrationis conclusio sit necessaria.	He says therefore first (73a21), that since the definition of scientific knowledge given above spoke of that which cannot be otherwise, that which is scientifically known through demonstration will be necessary. Then he explains what it is to know something in a scientific way through demonstration, saying that demonstrative science is “what we possess in having a demonstration,” i.e., what we acquire through demonstration. Consequently, it follows that the conclusion of a demonstration is necessary.
Quamvis autem necessarium possit syllogizari ex contingentibus, non tamen de necessario potest haberi scientia per medium contingens, ut infra probabitur. Et quia conclusio demonstrationis non solum est necessaria, sed etiam per demonstrationem scita, ut dictum est, sequitur quod demonstrativus syllogismus sit ex necessariis. Et ideo accipiendum est ex quibus necessariis et qualibus sint demonstrationes.	Now although the necessary could be syllogized from the contingent, it is not possible through a contingent middle to obtain scientific knowledge of the necessary, as will be proved later. Furthermore, because the conclusion. of a demonstration is not only necessary, but, as has been said, is known through demonstration, it follows that a demonstrative syllogism proceeds from necessary things. Consequently, we must establish from what and from what sort of necessary things a demonstration proceeds.
lib. 1 l. 9 n. 3 Deinde cum dicit: primum autem etc., interponit ea, quae sunt praeintelligenda ad cognoscendum de his de quibus tractaturus est. Et circa hoc duo facit. Primo, dicit de quo est intentio, dicens quod antequam determinetur in speciali ex quibus et qualibus sit demonstratio, primo determinandum est quid intelligatur cum dicimus de omni, et per se, et universale. Cognoscere enim ista est necessarium ad sciendum ex quibus sit demonstratio. Hoc namque oportet observari in demonstrationibus. Oportet enim in propositionibus demonstrationis aliquid universaliter praedicari, quod significat dici de omni, et per se, et etiam primo, quod significat universale. Haec autem tria se habent ex additione ad invicem. Nam omne quod per se praedicatur, etiam universaliter praedicatur; sed non e converso. Similiter omne quod primo praedicatur, praedicatur per se, sed non convertitur. Unde etiam apparet ratio ordinis istorum.	Then (73a25) he interjects certain things that must be understood as preliminaries to the matters to be discussed. Apropos of these he does two things: First, he states his intention (73a25), saying that before determining specifically the nature and characteristics of the things that form a demonstrative syllogism, we must indicate what is meant when we say, “of all,” and “per se,” i.e., in virtue of itself, and “commensurately universal.” For if we are to understand the nature of the things that form a demonstration, we must know what these terms mean, because they describe things that must be observed in demonstrations. For in the propositions of a demonstration it is required that something be predicated universally~ which he signifies by the term “said of all”—and “per se,” i.e., in virtue of itself, and “first”—which he signifies by the words, “commensurately universal.” But these three things are related by adding something to the previous one. For whatever is predicated per se is predicated universally [i.e., of all], but not vice versa. Again, whatever is predicated first is predicated per se, but not vice versa. This, therefore, shows why they are arranged as they are.
Differentia etiam et numerus istorum trium apparet ex hoc, quod aliquid praedicari dicitur de omni sive universaliter per comparationem ad ea, quae continentur sub subiecto. Tunc enim dicitur aliquid de omni, ut habetur in libro priorum, quando nihil est sumere sub subiecto, de quo praedicatum non dicatur. Per se autem dicitur aliquid praedicari, per comparationem ad ipsum subiectum: quia ponitur in eius definitione, vel e converso, ut infra patebit. Primo vero dicitur aliquid praedicari de altero per comparationem ad ea, quae sunt priora subiecto et continentia ipsum. Nam habere tres angulos etc., non praedicatur primo de isoscele: quia prius praedicatur de priori, scilicet de triangulo.	But why there are three and wherein they differ are explained by the fact that something is said to be predicated “of all” or universally in relation to things contained under the subject. For, as it is stated in Prior Analytics, something is said “of all,” when there is nothing under the extension of ,the subject that does not receive the given predicate. But it is in relation to the subject that something is said to be predicated per se, because the subject is mentioned when this predicate is defined, or vice versa, as will be explained below. Finally, something is said to be predicated of another thing “first” in relation to items that are prior to the, subject and embrace or include it, as the more universal includes the less. Thus to have three angles equal to two right angles is not predicated “first” of isosceles, because it is previously predicated of something prior to isosceles, namely, of triangle.
lib. 1 l. 9 n. 4 Secundo, ibi: de omni quidem etc., determinat propositum. Et dividitur in tres partes. Primo, ostendit quid sit dici de omni; secundo, quid sit dici per se; ibi: per se autem etc.; tertio, quid sit universale; ibi: universale autem dico et cetera. Circa primum duo facit. Primo, ostendit quid sit dici de omni. Ad quod sciendum est quod dici de omni, prout hic sumitur, addit supra dici de omni, prout sumitur in libro priorum. Nam in libro priorum accipitur dici de omni communiter, prout utitur eo et dialecticus et demonstrator. Et ideo non plus ponitur in definitione eius, quam quod praedicatum insit cuilibet eorum quae continentur sub subiecto. Hoc autem contingit vel ut nunc, et sic utitur quandoque dici de omni dialecticus; vel simpliciter et secundum omne tempus, et sic solum utitur eo demonstrator.	Secondly (73a28), he establishes his proposition. And his treatment is divided into three parts. First, he shows what is meant by “said of all.” Secondly, what is meant by “said per se,” i.e., in virtue of itself (73a34) [L. 10]. Thirdly, what is meant by “commensurately universal” (73b27) [L. II]. Concerning the first he does two things. First (73a28), he states what it is to be “said of all.” And it should be noted that the phrase, “said of all,” is taken here in a sense somewhat different from the sense it has in Prior Analytics, where it is taken in a very general sense so as to accommodate both the dialectician and the demonstrator. Therefore, no more is mentioned in its definition than that the predicate be found in each of the things included under its subject. But that might be verified only at a given moment—which is the sense in which the dialectician sometimes uses it; or it might be verified absolutely and at all times—which is the sense to which the demonstrator must always limit himself.
lib. 1 l. 9 n. 5 Et ideo in definitione dici de omni, duo ponit: quorum unum est, ut nihil sit sumere sub subiecto cui praedicatum non insit. Et hoc significat cum dicit: non in quodam quidem sic, in quodam autem non. Aliud est, quod non sit accipere aliquod tempus, in quo praedicatum subiecto non conveniat. Et hoc designat cum dicit: neque aliquando sic, aliquando non; et ponit exemplum. Sicut de omni homine praedicatur animal; et de quocunque verum est dicere quod sit homo, verum est dicere quod sit animal, et quandocunque est homo, est animal. Et similiter se habet de linea et de puncto: nam punctum est in linea qualibet et semper.	Accordingly, two things are mentioned in the definition of “said of all”: one is that there is nothing within the extension of the subject that the predicate does not apply to. And he indicates this when he says, “not of one to the exclusion of others”; the other is that there is no time in which the predicate does not belong. And this he indicates when he says, “not at this or that time only.” And he gives the example of “man” and “animal,” saying that “animal” is predicated of every man; and of anything of which it is true to say that it is a man, it is true to say that it is an animal, and whenever it is a man, it is an animal. The same is true between line and point: for a point is in every line and always in every line.
lib. 1 l. 9 n. 6 Secundo; ibi: signum autem etc., manifestat positam definitionem per signum ab instantiis sumptum. Non enim fertur instantia contra universalem propositionem, nisi quia deficit aliquid eorum, quae per eam significantur. Cum autem interrogamur, an aliquid praedicetur de omni in demonstrativis, dupliciter ferimus instantias; vel quia in quodam eorum quae continentur sub subiecto non est verum; vel quia aliquando non est verum. Unde manifestum est quod dici de omni utrunque praedictorum significat.	Secondly (73a32), he explains this definition, using as evidence the techniques employed in rebuttals. For a universal proposition is not rebutted unless one or other of things it states is not verified. For when we are asked whether something is said “of all” in a demonstration, we can say, “No,” for two reasons, i.e., either because it is not true of each instance of the subject, or because now and then it is not true. Hence it is clear that “being said of all” signifies each of these.