Authors/Thomas Aquinas/posteriorum/L1

Lecture 1 The need for pre-existent knowledge in all learning

Latin	English
	English translation by Fabian R. Larcher, O.P.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 1 Sicut dicit Aristoteles in principio metaphysicae, hominum genus arte et rationibus vivit: in quo videtur philosophus tangere quoddam hominis proprium quo a caeteris animalibus differt. Alia enim animalia quodam naturali instinctu ad suos actus aguntur; homo autem rationis iudicio in suis actionibus dirigitur. Et inde est quod ad actus humanos faciliter et ordinate perficiendos diversae artes deserviunt. Nihil enim aliud ars esse videtur, quam certa ordinatio rationis quomodo per determinata media ad debitum finem actus humani perveniant. Ratio autem non solum dirigere potest inferiorum partium actus, sed etiam actus sui directiva est. Hoc enim est proprium intellectivae partis, ut in seipsam reflectatur: nam intellectus intelligit seipsum et similiter ratio de suo actu ratiocinari potest. Si igitur ex hoc, quod ratio de actu manus ratiocinatur, adinventa est ars aedificatoria vel fabrilis, per quas homo faciliter et ordinate huiusmodi actus exercere potest; eadem ratione ars quaedam necessaria est, quae sit directiva ipsius actus rationis, per quam scilicet homo in ipso actu rationis ordinate, faciliter et sine errore procedat.	As the Philosopher says in Metaphysics I (980b26), “the human race lives by art and reasonings.” In this statement the Philosopher seems to touch upon that property whereby man differs from the other animals. For the other animals are prompted to their acts by a natural impulse, but man is directed in his actions by a judgment of reason. And this is the reason why there are various arts devoted to the ready and orderly performance of human acts. For an art seems to be nothing more than a definite and fixed procedure established by reason, whereby human acts reach their due end through appropriate means. Now reason is not only able to direct the acts of the lower powers but is also director of its own act: for what is peculiar to the intellective part of man is its ability to reflect upon itself. For the intellect knows itself. In like manner reason is able to reason about its own act. Therefore just as the art of building or carpentering, through which man is enabled to perform manual acts in an easy and orderly manner, arose from the fact that reason reasoned about manual acts, so in like manner an art is needed to direct the act of reasoning, so that by it a man when performing the act of reasoning might proceed in an orderly and easy manner and without error.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 2 Et haec ars est logica, idest rationalis scientia. Quae non solum rationalis est ex hoc, quod est secundum rationem (quod est omnibus artibus commune); sed etiam ex hoc, quod est circa ipsum actum rationis sicut circa propriam materiam.	And this art is logic, i.e., the science of reason. And it concerns reason not only because it is according to reason, for that is common to all arts, but also because it is concerned with the very act of reasoning as with its proper matter.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 3 Et ideo videtur esse ars artium, quia in actu rationis nos dirigit, a quo omnes artes procedunt. Oportet igitur logicae partes accipere secundum diversitatem actuum rationis.	Therefore it seems to be the art of the arts, because it directs us in the act of reasoning, from which all arts proceed. Consequently one should view the parts of logic according to the diversity among the acts of reason.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 4 Sunt autem rationis tres actus: quorum primi duo sunt rationis, secundum quod est intellectus quidam. Una enim actio intellectus est intelligentia indivisibilium sive incomplexorum, secundum quam concipit quid est res. Et haec operatio a quibusdam dicitur informatio intellectus sive imaginatio per intellectum. Et ad hanc operationem rationis ordinatur doctrina, quam tradit Aristoteles in libro praedicamentorum. Secunda vero operatio intellectus est compositio vel divisio intellectus, in qua est iam verum vel falsum. Et huic rationis actui deservit doctrina, quam tradit Aristoteles in libro perihermeneias. Tertius vero actus rationis est secundum id quod est proprium rationis, scilicet discurrere ab uno in aliud, ut per id quod est notum deveniat in cognitionem ignoti. Et huic actui deserviunt reliqui libri logicae.	Now there are three acts of the reason, the first two of which belong to reason regarded as an intellect. One action of the intellect is the understanding of indivisible or uncomplex things, and according to this action it conceives what a thing is. And this operation is called by some the informing of the intellect, or representing by means of the intellect. To this operation of the reason is ordained the doctrine which Aristotle hands down in the book of Predicaments, [i.e., Categories]. The second operation of the intellect is its act of combining or dividing, in which the true or the false are for the first time present. And this act of reason is the subject of the doctrine which Aristotle hands down in the book entitled On Interpretation. But the third act of the reason is concerned with that which is peculiar to reason, namely, to advance from one thing to another in such a way that through that which is known a man comes to a knowledge of the unknown. And this act is considered in the remaining books of logic.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 5 Attendendum est autem quod actus rationis similes sunt, quantum ad aliquid, actibus naturae. Unde et ars imitatur naturam in quantum potest. In actibus autem naturae invenitur triplex diversitas. In quibusdam enim natura ex necessitate agit, ita quod non potest deficere. In quibusdam vero natura ut frequentius operatur, licet quandoque possit deficere a proprio actu. Unde in his necesse est esse duplicem actum; unum, qui sit ut in pluribus, sicut cum ex semine generatur animal perfectum; alium vero quando natura deficit ab eo quod est sibi conveniens, sicut cum ex semine generatur aliquod monstrum propter corruptionem alicuius principii. Et haec etiam tria inveniuntur in actibus rationis. Est enim aliquis rationis processus necessitatem inducens, in quo non est possibile esse veritatis defectum; et per huiusmodi rationis processum scientiae certitudo acquiritur. Est autem alius rationis processus, in quo ut in pluribus verum concluditur, non tamen necessitatem habens. Tertius vero rationis processus est, in quo ratio a vero deficit propter alicuius principii defectum; quod in ratiocinando erat observandum.	It should be noted that the acts of reason are in a certain sense not unlike the acts of nature: hence so far as it can, art imitates nature. Now in the acts of nature we observe a threefold diversity. For in some of them nature acts from necessity, i.e., in such a way that it cannot fail; in others, nature acts so as to succeed for the most part, although now and then it fails in its act. Hence in this latter case there must be a twofold act: one which succeeds in the majority of cases, as when from seed is generated a perfect animal; the other when nature fails in regard to what is appropriate to it, as when from seed something monstrous is generated owing to a defect in some principle. These three are found also in the acts of the reason. For there is one process of reason which induces necessity, where it is not possible to fall short of the truth; and by such a process of reasoning the certainty of science is acquired. Again, there is a process of reason in which something true in most cases is concluded but without producing necessity. But the third process of reason is that in which reason fails to reach a truth because some principle which should have been observed in reasoning was defective.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 6 Pars autem logicae, quae primo deservit processui, pars iudicativa dicitur, eo quod iudicium est cum certitudine scientiae. Et quia iudicium certum de effectibus haberi non potest nisi resolvendo in prima principia, ideo pars haec analytica vocatur, idest resolutoria. Certitudo autem iudicii, quae per resolutionem habetur, est, vel ex ipsa forma syllogismi tantum, et ad hoc ordinatur liber priorum analyticorum, qui est de syllogismo simpliciter; vel etiam cum hoc ex materia, quia sumuntur propositiones per se et necessariae, et ad hoc ordinatur liber posteriorum analyticorum, qui est de syllogismo demonstrativo.	Now the part of logic which is devoted to the first process is called the judicative part, because it leads to judgments possessed of the certitude of science. And because a certain and sure judgment touching effects cannot be obtained except by analyzing them into their first principles, this part is called analytical, i.e., resolvent. Furthermore, the certitude obtained by such an analysis of a judgment is derived either from the mere form of the syllogism—and to this is ordained the book of the Prior Ana1ytics which treats of the syllogism as such—or from the matter along with the form, because the propositions employed are per se and necessary [cf. infra, Lectures 10, 13]—and to this is ordained the book of the Posterior Analytics which is concerned with the demonstrative syllogism.
Secundo autem rationis processui deservit alia pars logicae, quae dicitur inventiva. Nam inventio non semper est cum certitudine. Unde de his, quae inventa sunt, iudicium requiritur, ad hoc quod certitudo habeatur. Sicut autem in rebus naturalibus, in his quae ut in pluribus agunt, gradus quidam attenditur (quia quanto virtus naturae est fortior, tanto rarius deficit a suo effectu), ita et in processu rationis, qui non est cum omnimoda certitudine, gradus aliquis invenitur, secundum quod magis et minus ad perfectam certitudinem acceditur. Per huiusmodi enim processum, quandoque quidem, etsi non fiat scientia, fit tamen fides vel opinio propter probabilitatem propositionum, ex quibus proceditur: quia ratio totaliter declinat in unam partem contradictionis, licet cum formidine alterius, et ad hoc ordinatur topica sive dialectica. Nam syllogismus dialecticus ex probabilibus est, de quo agit Aristoteles in libro topicorum. Quandoque vero, non fit complete fides vel opinio, sed suspicio quaedam, quia non totaliter declinatur ad unam partem contradictionis, licet magis inclinetur in hanc quam in illam. Et ad hoc ordinatur rhetorica. Quandoque vero sola existimatio declinat in aliquam partem contradictionis propter aliquam repraesentationem, ad modum quo fit homini abominatio alicuius cibi, si repraesentetur ei sub similitudine alicuius abominabilis. Et ad hoc ordinatur poetica; nam poetae est inducere ad aliquod virtuosum per aliquam decentem repraesentationem. Omnia autem haec ad rationalem philosophiam pertinent: inducere enim ex uno in aliud rationis est. Tertio autem processui rationis deservit pars logicae, quae dicitur sophistica, de qua agit Aristoteles in libro elenchorum.	To the second process of reason another part of logic called investigative is devoted. For investigation is not always accompanied by certitude. Hence in order to have certitude a judgment must be formed, bearing on that which has been investigated. But just as in the works of nature which succeed in the majority of cases certain levels are achieved—because the stronger the power of nature the more rarely does it fail to achieve its effect—so too in that process of reason which is not accompanied by complete certitude certain levels are found accordingly as one approaches more or less to complete certitude. For although science is not obtained by this process of reason, nevertheless belief or opinion is sometimes achieved (on account of the provability of the propositions one starts with), because reason leans completely to one side of a contradiction but with fear concerning the other side. The Topics or dialectics is devoted to this. For the dialectical syllogism which Aristotle treats in the book of Topics proceeds from premises which are provable. At times, however, belief or opinion is not altogether achieved, but suspicion is, because reason does not lean to one side of a contradiction unreservedly, although it is inclined more to one side than to the other. To this the Rhetoric is devoted. At other times a mere fancy inclines one to one side of a contradiction because of some representation, much as a man turns in disgust from certain food if it is described to him in terms of something disgusting. And to this is ordained the Poetics. For the poet’s task is to lead us to something virtuous by some excellent description. And all these pertain to the philosophy of the reason, for it belongs to reason to pass from one thing to another. The third process of reasoning is served by that part of logic which is called sophistry, which Aristotle treats in the book On Sophistical Refutations.
	Lecture I (71al-10) THE NEED FOR PRE-EXISTENT KNOWLEDGE IN ALL LEARNING
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 7 Aliis igitur partibus logicae praetermissis, ad praesens intendendum est circa partem iudicativam, prout traditur in libro posteriorum analyticorum. Qui dividitur in partes duas: in prima, ostendit necessitatem demonstrativi syllogismi, de quo est iste liber; in secunda, de ipso syllogismo demonstrativo determinat; ibi: scire autem opinamur et cetera.	Leaving aside the other parts of logic, we shall fix our attention on the judicative part as it is presented in the book of Posterior Analytics which is divided into two parts. In the first he shows the need for the demonstrative syllogism, with which this book is concerned. In the second part he comes to a decision concerning that syllogism (71b8) [Lect. 4].
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 8 Necessitas autem cuiuslibet rei ordinatae ad finem ex suo fine sumitur; finis autem demonstrativi syllogismi est acquisitio scientiae; unde, si scientia acquiri non posset per syllogismum vel argumentum, nulla esset necessitas demonstrativi syllogismi. Posuit autem Plato quod scientia in nobis non causatur ex syllogismo, sed ex impressione formarum idealium in animas nostras, ex quibus etiam effluere dicebat formas naturales in rebus naturalibus, quas ponebat esse participationes quasdam formarum a materia separatarum. Ex quo sequebatur quod agentia naturalia non causabant formas in rebus inferioribus, sed solum materiam praeparabant ad participandum formas separatas. Et similiter ponebat quod per studium et exercitium non causatur in nobis scientia; sed tantum removentur impedimenta, et reducitur homo quasi in memoriam eorum, quae naturaliter scit ex impressione formarum separatarum. Sententia autem Aristotelis est contraria quantum ad utrumque. Ponit enim quod formae naturales reducuntur in actum a formis quae sunt in materia, scilicet a formis naturalium agentium. Et similiter ponit quod scientia fit in nobis actu per aliquam scientiam in nobis praeexistentem. Et hoc est fieri in nobis scientiam per syllogismum aut argumentum quodcumque. Nam ex uno in aliud argumentando procedimus.	Now the need for anything directed to an end is caused by that end. But the end of the demonstrative syllogism is the attainment of science. Hence if science could not be achieved by syllogizing or arguing, there would be no need for the demonstrative syllogism. Plato, as a matter of fact, held that science in us is not the result of a syllogism but of an impression upon our minds of ideal forms from which, he said, are also derived the natural forms in natural things, which he supposed were participations of forms separated from matter. From this it followed that natural agents were not the causes of forms in natural things but merely prepared the matter for participating in the separated forms. In like fashion he postulated that science in us is not caused by study and exercise, but only that obstacles are removed and man is brought to recall things which he naturally understands in virtue of an imprint of separated forms. But Aristotle’s view is opposed to this on two counts. For he maintains that natural forms are made actual by forms present in matter, i.e., by the forms of natural agents. He further maintains that science is made actual in us by other knowledge already existing in us. This means that it is formed in us through a syllogism or some type of argument. For in arguing we proceed from one thing into another.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 9 Ad ostendendum igitur necessitatem demonstrativi syllogismi, praemittit Aristoteles quod cognitio in nobis acquiritur ex aliqua cognitione praeexistenti. Duo igitur facit: primo, ostendit propositum; secundo, docet modum praecognitionis; ibi: dupliciter autem et cetera. Circa primum duo facit. Primo, inducit universalem propositionem propositum continentem, scilicet quod acceptio cognitionis in nobis fit ex aliqua praeexistenti cognitione. Et ideo dicit: omnis doctrina et omnis disciplina, non autem omnis cognitio, quia non omnis cognitio ex priori cognitione dependet: esset enim in infinitum abire. Omnis autem disciplinae acceptio ex praeexistenti cognitione fit. Nomen autem doctrinae et disciplinae ad cognitionis acquisitionem pertinet. Nam doctrina est actio eius, qui aliquid cognoscere facit; disciplina autem est receptio cognitionis ab alio. Non autem accipitur hic doctrina et disciplina secundum quod se habent ad acquisitionem scientiae tantum, sed ad acquisitionem cognitionis cuiuscumque. Quod patet, quia manifestat hanc propositionem etiam in disputativis et rhetoricis disputationibus, per quas non acquiritur scientia. Propter quod etiam non dicit ex praeexistenti scientia vel intellectu, sed universaliter cognitione. Addit autem intellectiva ad excludendum acceptionem cognitionis sensitivae vel imaginativae. Nam procedere ex uno in aliud rationis est solum.	Therefore, in order to show the need for demonstrative syllogism Aristotle begins by stating that some of our knowledge is acquired from knowledge already existing. Hence he does two things. First, he states his thesis. Secondly, he explains the character of prior knowledge (71a11) [Lect. 2]. Concerning the first he does two things. First (71a1), he asserts a universal proposition containing his thesis, namely, that the production of knowledge in us is caused from knowledge already existing; hence he says, “Every doctrine and every discipline...” He does not say, “all knowledge,” because not all knowledge depends on previous knowledge, for that would involve an infinite process: but the acquisition of every discipline comes from knowledge already possessed. For the names “doctrine” and “discipline” pertain to the learning process, doctrine being the action exerted by the one who makes us know, and discipline the reception of knowledge from another. Furthermore, “doctrine” and “discipline” are not taken here as pertaining only to the acquisition of scientific knowledge but to the acquiring of any knowledge. That this is so is evidenced by the fact that he explains the proposition even in regard to dialectical and rhetorical disputations, neither of which engenders science. Hence this is another reason why he did not say, “from pre-existent science or intuition,” but “knowledge” universally. However he does add, “intellectual,” in order to preclude knowledge acquired by sense or imagination. For reason alone proceeds from one thing into another.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 10 Secundo, cum dicit: mathematicae enim etc., manifestat propositionem praemissam per inductionem. Et primo, in demonstrativis in quibus acquiritur scientia. In his autem principaliores sunt mathematicae scientiae, propter certissimum modum demonstrationis. Consequenter autem sunt et omnes aliae artes, quia in omnibus est aliquis modus demonstrationis, alias non essent scientiae.	Then (71a3) he employs induction to prove his thesis; and first of all in regard to those demonstrations in which scientific knowledge is acquired. Of these the best are the mathematical sciences because of their most certain manner of demonstrating. After them come the other arts, because some manner of demonstrating is found in all of them; otherwise they would not be sciences.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 11 Secundo, cum dicit: similiter autem etc., manifestat idem in orationibus disputativis sive dialecticis, quae utuntur syllogismo et inductione: in quorum utroque proceditur ex aliquo praecognito. Nam in syllogismo accipitur cognitio alicuius universalis conclusi ab aliis universalibus notis. In inductione autem concluditur universale ex singularibus, quae sunt manifesta quantum ad sensum.	Secondly (71a4), he proves the same thing in regard to disputative, i.e., dialectical, arguments, because they employ syllogism and induction, in each of which the process starts from something already known. For in a syllogism the knowledge of some universal conclusion is obtained from other universals already known; in induction, however, a universal is concluded from singulars made known in sense-perception.
lib. 1 l. 1 n. 12 Tertio, cum dicit: similiter autem rhetoricae etc., manifestat idem in rhetoricis, in quibus persuasio fit per enthymema aut per exemplum; non autem per syllogismum vel inductionem completam, propter incertitudinem materiae circa quam versatur, scilicet circa actus singulares hominum, in quibus universales propositiones non possunt assumi vere. Et ideo utitur loco syllogismi, in quo necesse est esse aliquam universalem, aliquo enthymemate; et similiter loco inductionis, in qua concluditur universale, aliquo exemplo, in quo proceditur a singulari, non ad universale, sed ad singulare. Unde patet quod, sicut enthymema est quidam syllogismus detruncatus, ita exemplum est quaedam inductio imperfecta. Si ergo in syllogismo et inductione proceditur ex aliquo praecognito, oportet idem intelligi in enthymemate et exemplo.	Thirdly (71a8), he manifests the same thing in rhetorical arguments, in which persuasion is produced through an enthymeme or example but not through a syllogism or complete induction because of the uncertainty attending the matters discussed, namely, the individual acts of men in which universal propositions cannot be truthfully assumed. Therefore, in place of a syllogism in which there must be something universal, an enthymeme is employed in which it is not necessary to have something universal. Similarly, in place of induction in which a universal is concluded, an example is employed in which one goes from the singular not to the universal but to the singular. Hence it is clear that just as the enthymeme is an abridged syllogism, so an example is an incomplete induction. Therefore, if in the case of the syllogism and induction one proceeds from knowledge already existing, the same must be granted in the case of the enthymeme and example.

Lecture 2 Extent and order of the pre-existent knowledge required for obtaining science

Latin	English
	Lecture 2 (71a11-23) EXTENT AND ORDER OF THE PRE-EXISTENT KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED FOR OBTAINING SCIENCE
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 1 Postquam ostendit philosophus quod omnis disciplina ex praeexistenti fit cognitione nunc ostendit quis sit modus praecognitionis. Et circa hoc duo facit: primo, determinat modum praecognitionis quantum ad illa quae oportet praecognoscere ut habeatur cognitio conclusionis, cuius scientia quaeritur; secundo, determinat modum praecognitionis ipsius conclusionis, cuius scientia per demonstrationem quaeritur; ibi: antequam sit inducere et cetera. In praecognitione autem duo includuntur, scilicet cognitio et cognitionis ordo. Primo ergo, determinat modum praecognitionis quantum ad cognitionem ipsam; secundo, quantum ad cognitionis ordinem; ibi: est autem cognoscere et cetera.	After showing that every discipline is developed from knowledge already existing, the Philosopher shows what is the extent of this preexisting knowledge. Concerning this he does two things. First, he determines the extent of pre-existing knowledge in regard to the things that must be known in order to attain knowledge of the conclusion, of which scientific knowledge is sought. Secondly, he determines the extent of pre-existing knowledge of the conclusion, of which scientific knowledge is sought through demonstration (71a24) [L.3]. Now two things are included in pre-existing knowledge, namely, the knowledge and the order of the knowledge. First, therefore, he determines the extent of pre-existing knowledge so far as the knowledge itself is concerned. Secondly, so far as the order of the knowledge is concerned (71a16).
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 2 Circa primum sciendum est quod id cuius scientia per demonstrationem quaeritur est conclusio aliqua in qua propria passio de subiecto aliquo praedicatur: quae quidem conclusio ex aliquibus principiis infertur. Et quia cognitio simplicium praecedit cognitionem compositorum, necesse est quod, antequam habeatur cognitio conclusionis, cognoscatur aliquo modo subiectum et passio. Et similiter oportet quod praecognoscatur principium, ex quo conclusio infertur, cum ex cognitione principii conclusio innotescat.	In regard to the first it should be noted that the object of which scientific knowledge is sought through demonstration is some conclusion in which a proper attribute is predicated of some subject, which conclusion is inferred from the principles. And because the knowledge of simple things precedes the knowledge of compound things, it is necessary -that the subject and the proper attribute be somehow known before knowledge of the conclusion is obtained. In like manner it is required thatthe principle be known from which the conclusion is inferred, for the conclusion is made known from a knowledge of the principle.
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 3 Horum autem trium, scilicet, principii, subiecti et passionis est duplex modus praecognitionis, scilicet, quia est et quid est. Ostensum est autem in VII metaphysicae quod complexa non definiuntur. Hominis enim albi non est aliqua definitio et multo minus enunciationis alicuius. Unde cum principium sit enunciatio quaedam, non potest de ipso praecognosci quid est, sed solum quia verum est. De passione autem potest quidem sciri quid est, quia, ut in eodem libro ostenditur, accidentia quodammodo definitionem habent. Passionis autem esse et cuiuslibet accidentis est inesse subiecto: quod quidem demonstratione concluditur. Non ergo de passione praecognoscitur quia est, sed quid est solum. Subiectum autem et definitionem habet et eius esse a passione non dependet; sed suum esse proprium praeintelligitur ipsi esse passionis in eo. Et ideo de subiecto oportet praecognoscere et quid est et quia est: praesertim cum ex definitione subiecti et passionis sumatur medium demonstrationis.	Now the extent of pre-existent knowledge of these three items, i.e., of the principle, of the subject, and of the proper attribute, is limited to knowing two things about them, namely, that each is and what each is. But, as stated in Metaphysics VII, complex things are not defined. For there is no definition of “white man,” much less of an enunciation [proposition]. Hence since a principle is an enunciation, there cannot be preexisting knowledge of what it is but only of the fact that it is true. But in regard to the proper attribute, it is possible to know what it is, because, as is pointed out in the same book, accidents do have some sort of definition. Now the being of a proper attribute and of any accident is being in a subject; and this fact is concluded by the demonstration. Consequently, it is not known beforehand that the proper attribute exists, but only what it is. The subject, too, has a definition; moreover, its being does not depend on the proper attribute—rather its own being is known before one knows the proper attribute to be in it. Consequently, it is necessary to know both what the subject is and that it is, especially since the medium of demonstration is taken from the definition of the subject of the proper attribute.
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 4 Propter hoc ergo dicit philosophus quod dupliciter necessarium est praecognoscere: quia duo sunt quae praecognoscuntur de his, quorum praecognitionem habemus, scilicet quia est et quid est. Et quod alia sunt de quibus necesse est primo cognoscere quia sunt, sicut principia de quibus postea exemplificat, ponens in exemplo primum omnium principiorum, scilicet quod de unoquoque est affirmatio vel negatio vera.	This, therefore, is why the Philosopher says (71a11) that it is necessary to know beforehand in two ways; because two items are known beforehand concerning things of which we have pre-existing knowledge, namely, that it is and what it is. [Then he goes on to say] that there are some things concerning which it is necessary first to know that they are, such as principles, concerning which he then gives examples, citing as one example the first of all principles, namely, “There is true affirmation or negation about everything.”
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 5 Alia vero sunt, de quibus oportet praeintelligere quid est quod dicitur, idest quid significatur per nomen, scilicet de passionibus. Et non dicit quid est simpliciter, sed quid est quod dicitur, quia antequam sciatur de aliquo an sit, non potest sciri proprie de eo quid est: non entium enim non sunt definitiones. Unde quaestio, an est, praecedit quaestionem, quid est. Sed non potest ostendi de aliquo an sit, nisi prius intelligatur quid significatur per nomen. Propter quod etiam philosophus in IV metaphysicae, in disputatione contra negantes principia docet incipere a significatione nominum. Exemplificat autem de triangulo, de quo oportet praescire quoniam nomen eius hoc significat, quod scilicet in sua definitione continetur.	Again, there are other things, namely, proper attributes, concerning which it is necessary to know what is said to be predicated, i.e., what is signified by their name. And he does not say unqualifiedly, “what it is,” but “what is said to be predicated,” because one cannot properly know of something what it is before it is known that it is. For there are no definitions of non-beings. Hence the question, whether it is, precedes the question, what it is. But “whether a thing is” cannot be shown unless it is known beforehand what is signified by its name. On this account the Philosopher teaches in Metaphysics IV that in disputing against those who deny principles one must begin with the meanings of names. An example of this is “triangle,” concerning which one must know beforehand that its name signifies such and such, namely what is contained in its definition.
Cum enim accidentia quodam ordine ad substantiam referantur, non est inconveniens id quod est accidens in respectu ad aliquid, esse etiam subiectum in respectu alterius. Sicut superficies est accidens substantiae corporalis: quae tamen superficies est primum subiectum coloris. Id autem quod est ita subiectum, quod nullius est accidens, substantia est. Unde in illis scientiis, quarum subiectum est aliqua substantia, id quod est subiectum nullo modo potest esse passio, sicut est in philosophia prima, et in scientia naturali, quae est de subiecto mobili.	But since accidents are referred to their subjects in a definite order, it is not impossible for something which is an accident in relation to one thing to be a subject in relation to something else: for example, a surface is an accident in relation to a bodily substance, but in relation to color it is the first subject. However, that which is a subject in such a way as never to be an accident of anything else is a substance. Hence in those sciences whose subject is a substance, that which is the subject can never be a proper attribute, as in first philosophy and in natural science, which treats of mobile being.
In illis autem scientiis, quae sunt de aliquibus accidentibus, nihil prohibet id, quod accipitur ut subiectum respectu alicuius passionis, accipi etiam ut passionem respectu anterioris subiecti. Hoc tamen non in infinitum procedit. Est enim devenire ad aliquod primum in scientia illa, quod ita accipitur ut subiectum, quod nullo modo ut passio; sicut patet in mathematicis scientiis, quae sunt de quantitate continua vel discreta. Supponuntur enim in his scientiis ea quae sunt prima in genere quantitatis; sicut unitas, et linea, et superficies et alia huiusmodi. Quibus suppositis, per demonstrationem quaeruntur quaedam alia, sicut triangulus aequilaterus, quadratum in geometricis et alia huiusmodi. Quae quidem demonstrationes quasi operativae dicuntur, ut est illud, super rectam lineam datam triangulum aequilaterum constituere. Quo adinvento, rursus de eo aliquae passiones probantur, sicut quod eius anguli sunt aequales aut aliquid huiusmodi. Patet igitur quod triangulus in primo modo demonstrationis se habet ut passio, in secundo se habet ut subiectum. Unde philosophus hic exemplificat de triangulo ut est passio, non ut est subiectum, cum dicit quod de triangulo oportet praescire quoniam hoc significat.	But in those sciences which bear upon accidents, nothing prevents a same thing from being taken as a subject in reference to one proper attribute, and as an attribute in reference to a more basic subject. Nevertheless, this must not develop into an infinite process, for one must arrive at something which is first in that science and which is taken as a subject in such a way that it is never taken as a proper attribute, as is clear in the mathematical sciences, which treat of continuous or discrete quantity. For in these sciences those things are postulated which are first in the genus of quantity; for example, unit and line and surface and the like. Once these are postulated, certain other things are sought through demonstration, such as the equilateral triangle and the square and so on in geometry. In these cases the demonstrations are said to be, as it were, operational, as when it is required to construct an equilateral triangle on a given straight line. But once it has been constructed, certain proper attributes are proved about it; for example, that its angles are equal, or something of that sort. It is clear, therefore, that in the first type of demonstration “triangle” behaves as a proper attribute, and in the second type as a subject. Hence the Philosopher is using “triangle” as a proper attribute and not as a subject when he says by way of example, “We must assume that triangle means so and so” (71a14).
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 6 Dicit etiam quod quaedam sunt de quibus oportet praescire utrunque, scilicet quid est et quia est. Et exemplificat de unitate quae est principium in omni genere quantitatis. Etsi enim aliquo modo sit accidens respectu substantiae, tamen in scientiis mathematicis, quae sunt de quantitate, non potest accipi ut passio, sed ut subiectum tantum, cum in hoc genere nihil habeat prius.	He says, ‘furthermore, that there are certain things about which we must know beforehand both what each is and whether it is. And he uses the example of “one,” which is the principle in every genus of quantity. For although it is somehow an accident in reference to substance, yet in the mathematical sciences, which treat of quantity, it cannot be taken as a proper attribute but only as a subject, since in this genus [quantity] it has nothing prior to it.
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 7 Rationem autem huiusmodi diversitatis ostendit, quia non est similis modus manifestationis praedictorum, scilicet principii, passionis et subiecti. Non enim est eadem ratio cognitionis in ipsis: nam principia cognoscuntur per actum componentis et dividentis; subiectum autem et passio per actum apprehendentis quod quid est. Quod quidem non similiter competit subiecto et passioni: cum subiectum definiatur absolute, quia in definitione eius non ponitur aliquid, quod sit extra essentiam ipsius; passio autem definitur cum dependentia ad subiectum, quod in eius definitione ponitur. Unde, ex quo non eodem modo cognoscuntur, non est mirum si eorum diversa praecognitio sit.	The reason for this difference is shown by the fact that the manner in which the aforesaid, namely, principle, proper attribute and subject, are manifested is not the same. For the way in which they are known is not the same: for principles are known through the act of composing and dividing, but subject and proper attribute by the act of apprehending the essence. And this, too, does not belong in similar fashion to a subject and to a proper attribute, since a subject is defined absolutely, for nothing outside its essence is mentioned in its definition; but a proper attribute is defined with dependence on the subject which is mentioned in its definition. Therefore, since they are not known in the same way, it is not surprising if they are not foreknown in the same way.
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 8 Deinde cum dicit: est autem cognoscere etc., determinat modum praecognitionis ex parte ipsius ordinis, quem praecognitio importat. Est enim aliquid prius altero et secundum tempus et secundum naturam. Et hic duplex ordo in praecognitione considerandus est. Aliquid enim praecognoscitur sicut prius notum tempore. Et de his dicit quod alia contingit cognoscere aliquem cognoscentem ea prius tempore, quam illa quibus praecognosci dicuntur. Quaedam vero cognoscuntur simul tempore, sed prius natura. Et de his dicit quod quorundam praecognitorum simul tempore est accipere notitiam, et illorum quibus praecognoscuntur.	Then (7a16) he determines the extent of foreknowledge on the part of the order which foreknowing implies. For something is prior to another both in the order of time and in the order of nature. And this twofold order must be considered in regard to pre-existent knowing. For something is known before something else in the sense of being known prior in time. Concerning such things he says that someone could know certain things by knowing them prior to the time when he knows the things to which they are said to be foreknown. But certain others are known at one and the same time, although one is prior by nature to the other. Concerning these he says that one acquires a knowledge of some of these foreknown things at the same time that knowledge of the things to which they are foreknown is acquired.
lib. 1 l. 2 n. 9 Quae autem sint ista manifestat subdens quod huiusmodi sunt quaecumque continentur sub aliquibus universalibus, quorum habent cognitionem, idest de quibus notum est ea sub talibus universalibus contineri.	He indicates what these are when he adds that they are the things contained under certain universals of which we have knowledge, i.e., of which it is known that they are contained under such universals.
Et hoc ulterius manifestat per exemplum. Cum enim ad conclusionem inferendam duae propositiones requirantur, scilicet maior et minor, scita propositione maiori, nondum habetur conclusionis cognitio. Maior ergo propositio praecognoscitur conclusioni non solum natura, sed tempore. Rursus autem si in minori propositione inducatur sive assumatur aliquid contentum sub universali propositione, quae est maior, de quo manifestum non sit quod sub hoc universali contineatur, nondum habetur conclusionis cognitio, quia nondum erit certa veritas minoris propositionis. Si autem in minori propositione assumatur terminus, de quo manifestum sit quod continetur sub universali in maiori propositione, patet veritas minoris propositionis: quia id quod accipitur sub universali habet eius cognitionem, et sic statim habetur conclusionis cognitio. Ut si sic demonstraret aliquis, omnis triangulus habet tres angulos aequales duobus rectis, ista cognita, nondum habetur conclusionis cognitio: sed cum postea assumitur, haec figura descripta in semicirculo, est triangulus, statim scitur quod habet tres angulos aequales duobus rectis. Si autem non esset manifestum quod haec figura in semicirculo descripta est triangulus, nondum statim inducta assumptione sciretur conclusio; sed oporteret ulterius aliud medium quaerere, per quod demonstraretur hanc figuram esse triangulum.	Then he clarifies this with an example. For since two propositions are needed for inferring a conclusion, namely, a major and a minor; when the major proposition is known, the conclusion is not yet known. Therefore, the major proposition is known before the conclusion not only in nature but in time. Further, if in the minor proposition something is introduced or employed which is contained under the universal proposition which is the major, but it is not evident that it is contained under this universal, then a knowledge of the conclusion is not yet possessed, because the truth of the minor proposition will not yet be certain. But if in the minor proposition a term is taken about which it is clear that it is contained under the universal in the major proposition, the truth of the minor proposition is clear, because that which is taken under the universal shares in the same knowledge, and so the knowledge of the conclusion is had at once. Thus, suppose that someone should begin to demonstrate by stating that every triangle has three angles equal to two right angles. When this is known, the knowledge of the conclusion is not yet known. But when it is later assumed that this figure inscribed in a semicircle is a triangle, he knows at once that it has three angles equal to two right angles. However, if it were not clear that this figure inscribed in the semicircle is a triangle, the conclusion would not be known as soon as the minor was stated; rather, it would be necessary to search for a middle through which to demonstrate that this figure is a triangle.
Exemplificans ergo philosophus de his quae cognoscuntur ante conclusionem prius tempore, dicit quod aliquis per demonstrationem conclusionis cognitionem accipiens, hanc propositionem praescivit etiam secundum tempus, scilicet, quod omnis triangulus habet tres angulos duobus rectis aequales. Sed inducens hanc assumptionem, scilicet, quod hoc quod est in semicirculo sit triangulus, simul, scilicet tempore, cognovit conclusionem, quia hoc inductum habet notitiam universalis, sub quo continetur, ut non oporteat ulterius medium quaerere. Et ideo subdit quod, quorundam est hoc modo disciplina, idest eorum accipitur cognitio per se, et non oportet ea cognoscere per aliquod aliud medium, quod sit ultimum in resolutione, qua mediata ad immediata reducuntur. Vel potest legi sic: quod ultimum, idest extremum, quod accipitur sub universali medio, non oportet ut cognoscatur esse sub illo universali per aliquod aliud medium. Et quae sint ista, quae semper habent cognitionem sui universalis, manifestat subdens quod huiusmodi sunt singularia, quae non dicuntur de aliquo subiecto: cum inter singularia et speciem nullum medium possit inveniri.	In giving this example of things which are known at a time prior to the conclusion the Philosopher says that a person obtaining a knowledge of the conclusion through demonstration foreknew this proposition even according to time, namely, that every triangle has three angles equal to two right angles. But inducing this assumption, namely, that this figure in the semicircle is a triangle, he knew the conclusion at the same time, because this induction shares in the evidence of the universal under which it is contained, so that there is no need to search for another middle. He adds, therefore, that “some things are only learnt in this way” (71a23), i.e., learnt in virtue of themselves, so that it is not necessary to learn them through some other middle which is the ultimate reached by analysis in which the mediate is reduced to the immediate. Or it can be read in such a way that the “ultimate,” i.e., the extreme, which is subsumed under the universal middle does not need a further middle to show that it i contained under that universal. And he manifests what those things are which always share the knowledge of their universal, saying that they are the singulars, which are not predicated of any subject, since no middle can be found between singulars and their species.

Lecture 3 Pre-existent knowledge of the conclusion

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	Lecture 3 (71a24-b9) PRE-EXISTENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CONCLUSION
lib. 1 l. 3 n. 1 Postquam ostendit philosophus quomodo oportet praecognoscere quaedam alia, antequam de conclusione cognitio sumatur, nunc vult ostendere quomodo ipsam conclusionem contingit praecognoscere, antequam cognitio sumatur de ea per syllogismum vel inductionem. Et circa hoc duo facit.	Having shown the manner in which certain other things must be known before knowledge of the conclusion is obtained, the Philosopher now wishes to show how we know even the conclusion beforehand, i.e., before knowledge of it is obtained through a syllogism or induction. Concerning this he does two things.
Primo namque determinat veritatem, dicens quod, antequam inducatur inductio vel syllogismus ad faciendam cognitionem de aliqua conclusione, illa conclusio quodammodo scitur, et quodammodo non: simpliciter enim nescitur, sed scitur solum secundum quid. Sicut si debeat probari ista conclusio, triangulus habet tres angulos aequales duobus rectis; antequam demonstraretur, ille qui per demonstrationem accipit scientiam eius, nescivit simpliciter, sed scivit secundum quid. Unde quodammodo praescivit, simpliciter autem non. Cuius quidem ratio est, quia, sicut iam ostensum est, oportet principia conclusioni praecognoscere. Principia autem se habent ad conclusiones in demonstrativis, sicut causae activae in naturalibus ad suos effectus (unde in II physicorum propositiones syllogismi ponuntur in genere causae efficientis). Effectus autem, antequam producatur in actu, praeexistit quidem in causis activis virtute, non autem actu, quod est simpliciter esse. Et similiter antequam ex principiis demonstrativis deducatur conclusio, in ipsis quidem principiis praecognitis praecognoscitur conclusio virtute, non autem actu: sic enim in eis praeexistit. Et sic patet quod non praecognoscitur simpliciter, sed secundum quid.	First (71a24), he establishes the truth of the fact, saying that before an induction or syllogism is formed to beget knowledge of a conclusion, that conclusion is somehow known and somehow not known: for, absolutely speaking, it is not known; but in a qualified sense, it is known. Thus, if the conclusion that a triangle has three angles equal to two right angles has to be proved, the one who obtains science of this fact through demonstration already knew it in some way before it was demonstrated; although absolutely speaking, he did not know it. Hence in one sense he already knew it, but in the full sense he did not. And the reason is that, as has been pointed out, the principles of the conclusion must be known beforehand. Now the principles in demonstrative matters are to the conclusion as efficient causes in natural things are to their effects; hence in Physics II the propositions of a syllogism are set in the genus of efficient cause. But an effect, before it is actually produced, pre-exists virtually in its efficient causes but not actually, which is to exist absolutely. In like manner, before it is drawn out of its demonstrative principles, the conclusion is pre-known virtually, although not actually, in its self-evident principles. For that is the way it pre-exists in them. And so it is clear that it is not pre-known in the full sense, but in some sense.
lib. 1 l. 3 n. 2 Secundo; ibi: si vero non etc., excludit ex veritate determinata quandam dubitationem, quam Plato ponit in libro Menonis, sic intitulato ex nomine sui discipuli. Est autem dubitatio talis. Inducit enim quendam, omnino imperitum artis geometricae, interrogatum ordinate de principiis, ex quibus quaedam geometrica conclusio concluditur, incipiendo ex principiis per se notis: ad quae omnia ille, ignarus geometriae, id quod verum est respondit: et sic deducendo quaestiones usque ad conclusiones per singula verum respondit. Ex hoc igitur vult habere, quod etiam illi, qui videntur imperiti aliquarum artium, antequam de eis instruantur, earum notitiam habent. Et sic sequitur quod vel homo nihil addiscat, vel addiscat ea quae prius novit.	Secondly (71a28), in virtue of this established fact, he settles a doubt which Plato maintained in the book, Meno, which gets its title from the name of his disciple. The doubt is presented in the following manner: A person utterly ignorant of the art of geometry is questioned in an orderly Way concerning the per se known principles from which a geometric conclusion is concluded. By starting with principles that are per se known, to each of which this person ignorant of geometry gives a true answer, Aid leading him thus by questions to the conclusion, he gives the true Answer step by step. From this, therefore, he would have it that even those who seem to be ignorant of certain arts really have a knowledge of them before being instructed in them. And so it follows that either a man learns nothing or he learns what he already knew.
lib. 1 l. 3 n. 3 Circa hoc ergo quatuor facit. Primo enim, proponit quod praedicta dubitatio vitari non potest, nisi supposita praedeterminata veritate, scilicet quod conclusio, quam quis addiscit per demonstrationem vel inductionem, erat nota non simpliciter, sed secundum quod est virtute in suis principiis: de quibus aliquis, ignarus scientiae, interrogatus, veritatem respondere potest. Secundum vero Platonis sententiam, conclusio erat praecognita simpliciter; unde non addiscebatur de novo, sed potius per deductionem aliquam rationis in memoriam reducebatur. Sicut etiam de formis naturalibus Anaxagoras ponit, quod ante generationem praeexistebant in materia simpliciter. Aristoteles vero ponit quod praeexistunt in potentia et non simpliciter.	In dealing with this problem he [Aristotle] does four things. First, he suggests that it cannot be settled unless we grant the truth established above, namely, that the conclusion which a person learns through demonstration or induction was already known, not absolutely, but as it was virtually known in its principles concerning which a person ignorant of a science can give true answers. However, according to Plato’s theory the conclusion was pre-known absolutely, so that no one learns afresh but is led to recall by some rational process of deduction. This is similar to Anaxagoras’ position on natural forms, namely, that before they are generated, they already pre-existed in the matter absolutely, whereas Aristotle says that they pre-exist in potency and not absolutely.
lib. 1 l. 3 n. 4 Secundo, cum dicit: non enim sicut etc., ponit falsam quorundam obviationem ad dubitationem Platonis: qui scilicet dicebant quod conclusio antequam demonstraretur vel quocunque modo addisceretur, nullo modo erat cognita. Poterat enim eis obiici secundum dubitationem Platonis hoc modo: si quis interrogaret ab aliquo imperito: nunquid tu scis quod omnis dualitas par est? Et dicente eo, idest concedente se scire, afferret quandam dualitatem, quam ille interrogatus non opinaretur esse, puta illam dualitatem quae est tertia pars senarii; concluderetur quod sciret tertiam partem senarii esse numerum parem: quod erat ei incognitum, sed per demonstrationem inductam addiscit. Et sic videtur sequi quod vel non hoc addisceret vel addisceret quod prius scivit. Ut igitur hanc dubitationem evitarent, solvebant dicentes, quod ille qui interrogatus respondit se scire quod omnis dualitas sit numerus par, non dixit se cognoscere omnem dualitatem simpliciter, sed illam, quam scivit esse dualitatem. Unde cum ista dualitas, quae est allata, fuerit ab eo penitus ignorata, nullo modo scivit quod haec dualitas esset numerus par. Et sic sequitur quod apud cognoscentem principia nullo modo conclusio sit praecognita, nec simpliciter, nec secundum quid.	Secondly, he shows that the way some have answered Plato’s problem is false, namely, by saying that a conclusion is not in any sense known before it is demonstrated or learned by some method or other. For they might face the following objection based on Plato’s problem: If an unlearned person were asked by someone, “Do you know that every duo (pair) is an even number?” and, if upon answering that he does know this, he were presented with a duo which the person interrogated did not know existed, for example, the duo which is one third of six, the conclusion would be that he knew one third of six to be an even number, a fact which had not been known by him but which he learned through the demonstration proposed to him. And so it seems to follow that he either did not freshly learn this or that he learned what he already knew. To avoid this dilemma, they would answer that the person who was questioned and who answered that he knew every duo to be an equal number did not say that he knew every duo absolutely, but those he knew to be duo’s. Hence, since that duo which was proposed was utterly unknown to him, he did not in any sense know that this duo was an even number. And so it follows that when one knows the principles, the conclusion is not in any sense pre-known, either absolutely or in a qualified sense.
lib. 1 l. 3 n. 5 Tertio, ibi: et etiam sciunt etc., improbat hanc solutionem hoc modo. Illud scitur de quo demonstratio habetur, vel de quo de novo accipitur demonstratio. Et hoc dicitur propter addiscentem, qui incipit scire. Addiscentes autem non accipiunt demonstrationem de omni dualitate de qua sciunt, sed de omni simpliciter, et similiter de omni numero aut de omni triangulo. Non ergo verum est quod sciat de omni numero, quem scit esse numerum, aut de omni dualitate, quam scit esse dualitatem, sed de omni simpliciter. Quod autem non sciat de omni numero, quem scit esse numerum, sed de omni simpliciter, probat; ibi: neque enim una propositio etc.: conclusio cum praemissis convenit in terminis: nam subiectum et praedicatum conclusionis sunt maior et minor extremitas in praemissis; sed in praemissis non accipitur aliqua propositio de numero aut de recta linea, cum hac additione, quam tu nosti, sed simpliciter de omni; neque ergo conclusio demonstrationis est cum additione praedicta, sed simpliciter de omni.	Thirdly (71bl), he refutes this solution in the following way: That is known, concerning which a demonstration is had, or concerning which a demonstration is for the first time received. And this is said on account of those learners who begin to know scientifically. But learners do not obtain a demonstration touching every duo they happen to know but every duo absolutely; and the same applies to every number or every triangle. Therefore, it is not true that he knows something about every number which he knows to be a number, or of every duo which he knows to be a duo, but he knows it about every one absolutely. And that he knows it not only of every number he happens to know is a number, but of every number absolutely, is proved at (71b5) on the ground that the conclusion agrees with the premises in its terms. For the subject and predicate of the conclusion are the major and minor extremes in the premises. But in the premises no proposition concerning number or straight line is stated with the addition, “which you know,” but it is stated of all without qualification. Neither, therefore, is the conclusion of the demonstration asserted with the aforesaid qualification, but it is asserted of all without reservation.
lib. 1 l. 3 n. 6 Quarto, ibi: sed nihil etc., ponit veram solutionem dubitationis praedictae secundum praedeterminatam veritatem, dicens quod illud quod quis addiscit, nihil prohibet primo quodammodo scire et quodammodo ignorare. Non enim est inconveniens si aliquis quodammodo praesciat id quod addiscit; sed esset inconveniens si hoc modo praecognosceret, secundum quod addiscit. Addiscere enim proprie est scientiam in aliquo generari. Quod autem generatur, ante generationem neque fuit omnino non ens neque omnino ens, sed quodammodo ens et quodammodo non ens: ens quidem in potentia, non ens vero actu: et hoc est generari, reduci de potentia in actum. Unde nec id quod quis addiscit erat omnino prius notum, ut Plato posuit, nec omnino ignotum, ut secundum solutionem supra improbatam ponebatur; sed erat notum potentia sive virtute in principiis praecognitis universalibus, ignotum autem actu, secundum propriam cognitionem. Et hoc est addiscere, reduci de cognitione potentiali, seu virtuali, aut universali, in cognitionem propriam et actualem.	Fourthly (71b5), he presents the true solution of the problem under discussion in terms of the truth already established, saying that there is nothing to prevent a person from somehow knowing and somehow not knowing a fact before he learns it. For it is not a paradox if one somehow already knows what he learns, but it would be, if he already knew it in the same way that he knows it when he has learned it. For learning is, properly speaking, the generation of science in someone. But that which is generated was not, prior to its generation, a being absolutely, but somehow a being and somehow non-being: for it was a being in potency, although actually non-being. And this is what being generated consists in, namely, in being converted from potency to act. In like fashion, that which a person learns was not previously known absolutely, as Plato preferred; but neither was it absolutely unknown, as they maintained whose answer was refuted above. Rather it was known in potency, i.e., virtually, in the pre-known universal principles; however, it was not actually known in the sense of specific knowledge. And this is what learning consists in, namely, in being brought from potential or virtual or universal knowledge to specific and actual knowledge.

Lecture 4 Nature of the demonstrative syllogism

Latin	English
	Lecture 4 (71b8-72a8) NATURE OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE SYLLOGISM
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 1 Postquam ostendit philosophus necessitatem syllogismi demonstrativi, hic iam incipit de ipso syllogismo demonstrativo determinare. Et dividitur in duas partes: in prima, determinat de syllogismo demonstrativo; in secunda, de medio ex quo syllogismus demonstrativus procedit: et hoc in secundo libro; ibi: quaestiones sunt aequales numero et cetera. Prima dividitur in duas: in prima, determinat de syllogismo demonstrativo absolute; in secunda, comparando demonstrationem demonstrationi; ibi: cum autem demonstratio sit alia quidem universalis et cetera. Prima in duas dividitur: in prima, determinat de syllogismo demonstrativo; in secunda, ostendit quod non sit in demonstrationibus in infinitum procedere; ibi: est autem omnis syllogismus per tres terminos et cetera. Prima dividitur in duas: in prima, determinat de syllogismo demonstrativo per quem acquirimus scientiam: in secunda, ostendit quomodo etiam in nobis per syllogismum acquiritur aliqua ignorantia; ibi: ignorantia autem secundum negationem et cetera. Circa primum tria facit: primo, determinat de syllogismo demonstrativo, ostendendo quid sit; secundo, determinat de materia syllogismi demonstrativi, ostendendo quae et qualia sint, ex quibus est; ibi: quoniam autem impossibile est etc.; tertio, determinat de forma ipsius, ostendendo in qua figura praecipue fiat; ibi: figurarum autem magis faciens scire et cetera. Circa primum tria facit: primo, ostendit de demonstrativo syllogismo, quid est; secundo, notificat quaedam, quae in definitione syllogismi demonstrativi ponuntur; ibi: est autem principium demonstrationis etc.; tertio, excludit quosdam errores, qui ex praemissis circa demonstrationem oriri possunt; ibi: quibusdam quidem igitur et cetera.	After indicating the need for the demonstrative syllogism, the Philosopher now begins to settle questions concerning the demonstrative syllogism itself. And his treatment is divided into two parts. In the first he determines concerning the demonstrative syllogism. In the second he determines concerning the middle from which the demonstrative syllogism proceeds (89b21) [Book II]. The first is divided into two parts. In the first he determines concerning the demonstrative syllogism in itself. In the second he compares demonstration to demonstration (85a12) [L. 37]. The first is divided into two parts. In the first he determines concerning the demonstrative syllogism. In the second he shows that one does not proceed to infinity in demonstrations (81b10) [L. 31] The first is divided into two parts. In the first he determines concerning the demonstrative syllogism through which we acquire science. In the second he shows how we also acquire ignorance through a syllogism (79b23) [L. 27]. Concerning the first he does three things. First, he determines concerning the demonstrative syllogism by showing what it is. Secondly, he determines concerning the matter of the demonstrative syllogism, pointing out the nature and character of the matter out of which it is formed (73a21) [L. 9]. Thirdly, he determines concerning the form of the syllogism, pointing out the figure in which it is chiefly presented (79a17) [L. 26]. Concerning the first he does three things. First, he shows what the demonstrative syllogism is. Secondly, he clarifies certain terms that appear in the definition of the demonstrative syllogism (72a8) [L. 5]. Thirdly, he excludes certain errors that could arise from his doctrine on the nature of demonstration [L. 7].
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 2 Circa primum sciendum est quod in omnibus quae sunt propter finem, definitio quae est per causam finalem, est ratio definitionis, quae est per causam materialem, et medium probans ipsam: propter hoc enim oportet ut domus fiat ex lapidibus et lignis, quia est operimentum protegens nos a frigore et aestu. Sic igitur Aristoteles de demonstratione dat hic duas definitiones: quarum una sumitur a fine demonstrationis, qui est scire; et ex hac concluditur altera, quae sumitur a materia demonstrationis.	In regard to the first it should be noted that in all things which exist for an end, the definition which employs a final cause is both the explanation of the definition which expresses the material cause, and is the middle which proves the latter. For the reason why a house should made of stone and wood is that it is a structure protecting us from the cold and heat. Along these lines, therefore, he gives two definitions demonstration, one of which is expressed in terms of the end of demonstration, which is to know in a scientific manner. And from this one is concluded the other, which is drawn from the matter of a demonstration.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 3 Unde circa hoc tria facit: primo, definit ipsum scire; secundo, definit demonstrationem per finem eius, qui est ipsum scire; ibi: dicimus autem scire etc.; tertio, ex utraque definitione concludit definitionem demonstrationis, quae sumitur per comparationem materiae demonstrationis; ibi: si igitur est scire ut posuimus et cetera. Circa primum quinque facit. Primo enim, determinat cuiusmodi scire sit, quod definire intendit.	Hence he does three things in regard to this. First, he defines what it is to know in a scientific manner. Secondly, he defines demonstration in terms of its end, which is to know in a scientific manner (71b18). Thirdly, from these two definitions he concludes to that definition of demonstration which is expressed in terms of the matter of demonstration (71b19). Concerning the first he does five things. First (71b8), he determines what the scientific knowing, which he intends to define, bears upon.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 4 Circa quod sciendum est quod aliquid dicimur scire simpliciter, quando scimus illud in seipso. Dicimur scire aliquid secundum quid, quando scimus illud in alio, in quo est, vel sicut pars in toto, sicut si scientes domum, diceremur scire parietem; vel sicut accidens in subiecto, sicut si scientes Coriscum, diceremur scire venientem; vel sicut effectus in causa, sicut dictum est supra quod conclusionem praescimus in principiis; vel quocunque simili modo. Et hoc est scire per accidens, quia scilicet scito aliquo per se, dicimur scire illud quod accidit ei quocunque modo. Intendit igitur philosophus definire scire simpliciter, non autem scire secundum accidens. Hic enim modus sciendi est sophisticus. Utuntur enim sophistae tali modo arguendi: cognosco Coriscum; Coriscus est veniens; ergo cognosco venientem.	And in regard to this it should be recognized that we are said to know something in a scientific manner absolutely, when we know it in itself. On the other hand, we are said to know something in a scientific manner qualifiedly, when we know it in something else in which it exists either as a part in a whole (as we are said to know a wall through knowing the house), or as an accident in its subject (as in knowing Coriscus we are said to know who is coming toward us), or as an effect in its cause (as in the example given earlier, we know the conclusion in the principles), or indeed in any fashion similar to these. To know in these ways is to know incidentally, because we are said to know that which is somehow accidental to what is known of itself. However, what the Philosopher intends to define here is scientific knowing in the strict sense and not according to an accident. For this form of knowing is sophistical, since Sophists use a form of argument typified by the following: “I know Coriscus; Coriscus is coming toward me: therefore, I know the person coming toward me.”
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 5 Secundo, cum dicit: cum causam arbitramur etc., ponit definitionem ipsius scire simpliciter. Circa quod considerandum est quod scire aliquid est perfecte cognoscere ipsum, hoc autem est perfecte apprehendere veritatem ipsius: eadem enim sunt principia esse rei et veritatis ipsius, ut patet ex II metaphysicae. Oportet igitur scientem, si est perfecte cognoscens, quod cognoscat causam rei scitae. Si autem cognosceret causam tantum, nondum cognosceret effectum in actu, quod est scire simpliciter, sed virtute tantum, quod est scire secundum quid et quasi per accidens. Et ideo oportet scientem simpliciter cognoscere etiam applicationem causae ad effectum. Quia vero scientia est etiam certa cognitio rei; quod autem contingit aliter se habere, non potest aliquis per certitudinem cognoscere; ideo ulterius oportet quod id quod scitur non possit aliter se habere. Quia ergo scientia est perfecta cognitio, ideo dicit: cum causam arbitramur cognoscere; quia vero est actualis cognitio per quam scimus simpliciter, addit: et quoniam illius est causa; quia vero est certa cognitio, subdit: et non est contingere aliter se habere.	Then (71b10) he presents the definition of scientific knowing in the strict sense. Apropos of this it should be noted that to know something scientifically is to know it completely, which means to apprehend its truth perfectly. For the principles of a thing’s being are the same as those of its truth, as is stated in Metaphysics II. Therefore, the scientific knower, if he is to know perfectly, must know the cause of the thing known; hence he says, “when we think that we know the cause” (71b10). But if he were to know the cause by itself, he would not yet know the effect actually—which would be to know it absolutely—but only virtually, which is the same as knowing in a qualified sense and incidentally. Consequently, one who knows scientifically in the full sense must know the application of the cause to the effect; hence he adds, “as the cause of that fact” (71b11). Again, because science is also sure and certain knowledge of a thing, whereas a thing that could be otherwise cannot be known with certainty, it is further required that what is scientifically known could not be otherwise. To repeat: because science is perfect knowledge, lie says, “Men we think that we know the cause”; but because the knowledge through which we know scientifically in the full sense is actual, he adds, “as the cause of that fact.” Finally, because it is certain knowledge, he adds, “and that the fact could not be other than it is (71b11).”
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 6 Tertio, ibi: manifestum igitur etc., manifestat positam definitionem per hoc, quod tam scientes, quam non scientes, existimantes tamen se scire, hoc modo accipiunt scire sicut dictum est: non scientes enim qui existimant se scire, opinantur sic se habere in cognoscendo, sicut dictum est; scientes autem vere sic se habent. Est autem haec recta manifestatio definitionis. Definitio enim est ratio, quam significat nomen, ut dicitur in IV metaphysicae; significatio autem nominis accipienda est ab eo, quod intendunt communiter loquentes per illud nomen significare: unde et in II topicorum dicitur quod nominibus utendum est, ut plures utuntur. Si quis etiam recte consideret, hac notificatione magis ostenditur quid significet nomen, quam directe aliquid significetur: non enim notificat scientiam, de qua proprie posset definitio assignari, cum sit species alicuius generis, sed notificat ipsum scire. Unde et a principio dixit: scire autem opinamur etc., et non dixit: scire est aliquid tale vel tale.	Thirdly (71b12), he explains the definition he laid down, appealing to the fact that both those who know scientifically and those who do not know in that way but believe that they do, take scientific knowing to be as above described. For those who do not know in a scientific manner but believe that they do, are convinced that they know in the manner described, whereas those who know in a scientific manner do know in the manner described. Furthermore, this is the proper way to manifest a definition. For a definition is the notion which a name signifies, as it is stated in Metaphysics IV. But the signification of a name must be based on what is generally meant by those who employ the name. Hence it is stated in Topics II that names must be used as the majority of people use them. Again, careful consideration would indicate that this explanation seems rather to show what the name signifies than to signify something directly. For he does not explain science, concerning which a definition could, properly speaking, be formed, since it is a species of some genus; rather he explains scientific knowing. Hence at the very beginning he said, “We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge” (71b8) and not that scientific knowledge is such and such.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 7 Quarto, ibi: quare cuius etc., concludit quoddam corollarium ex definitione posita, scilicet quod illud, de quo simpliciter habetur scientia, oportet esse necessarium, scilicet quod non contingat aliter se habere.	Fourthly (71b14), he draws a corollary from the definition, namely, that that of which there is unqualified scientific knowledge must be something necessary, i.e., which cannot be otherwise.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 8 Quinto, ibi: si quidem etc., respondet tacitae quaestioni, utrum scilicet sit aliquis alius modus sciendi a praedicto. Quod promittit se in sequentibus dicturum: est enim scire etiam per effectum, ut infra patebit. Dicimur etiam aliquo modo scire ipsa principia indemonstrabilia, quorum non est accipere causam. Sed proprius et perfectus sciendi modus est qui praedictus est.	Fifthly (71b16), he answers a tacit question, namely, whether there is another way of knowing scientifically in addition to the way described here. And he promises to discuss this later. For it is possible to know scientifically through an effect, as will be explained below (cf. L. 23). Furthermore, there is a sense in which we are said to know scientifically the indemonstrable principles to which no cause is ascribed. But the proper and perfect manner of knowing scientifically is the one we have described.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 9 Deinde, cum dicit: dicimus autem etc., definit syllogismum demonstrativum per comparationem ad finem suum, qui est scire. Circa quod tria facit. Primo, ponit quod scire est finis syllogismi demonstrativi sive effectus eius, cum scire nihil aliud esse videatur, quam intelligere veritatem alicuius conclusionis per demonstrationem.	Then (71b17) he defines the demonstrative syllogism in terms of its end, which is to know in a scientific manner. In regard to this he does three things. First, he asserts that scientific knowing is the end of a demonstrative syllogism or is its effect, since to know scientifically seems to b nothing less than to understand the truth of a conclusion through demonstration.
Secundo, ibi: demonstrationem autem etc., definit syllogismum demonstrativum per huiusmodi finem: dicens quod demonstratio est syllogismus scientialis, idest faciens scire. Tertio, exponit hoc quod dixerat scientialem; ibi: sed scientialem etc., dicens quod scientialis syllogismus dicitur, secundum quem scimus, in quantum ipsum habemus, ne forte aliquis syllogismum scientialem intelligeret, quo aliqua scientia uteretur.	Secondly (71b18), he defines demonstration in terms of the end, saying that a demonstration is a sciential syllogism, i.e., producing scientific knowledge. Thirdly (71b18), he explains, “sciential,” saying that a sciential syllogism is one according to which we know scientifically insofar as we understand it, and not in the sense of a syllogism yielding knowledge to be put to use.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 10 Deinde, cum dicit: si igitur est scire etc., concludit ex praedictis definitionem syllogismi demonstrativi ex materia sumptam. Et circa hoc duo facit: primo, concludit; secundo, manifestat eam; ibi: verum quidem igitur oportet esse et cetera. Circa primum tria facit. Primo, ponit consequentiam, qua demonstrationis materialis definitio concluditur ex praemissis, dicens quod si scire hoc significat quod diximus, scilicet, causam rei cognoscere etc., necesse est quod demonstrativa scientia, idest quae per demonstrationem acquiritur, procedat ex propositionibus veris, primis et immediatis, idest quae non per aliquod medium demonstrantur, sed per seipsas sunt manifestae (quae quidem immediatae dicuntur, in quantum carent medio demonstrante; primae autem in ordine ad alias propositiones, quae per eas probantur); et iterum ex notioribus, et prioribus, et causis conclusionis.	Then (71b19) he concludes from the foregoing a definition of the demonstrative syllogism that is based on its matter. Concerning this he does two things. First, he concludes it. Secondly, he clarifies it (71b24). Concerning the first he does three things. First (71b20), he sets forth the consequent in which the material definition of demonstration is concluded from the premises laid down above. And he says that if scientific knowing is what we have stated it to be, namely, knowing the cause of a thing, etc., then it is necessary that demonstrative science, i.e., science acquired through demonstration, proceed from propositions which are true, first, and immediate, i.e., not demonstrated by some other mid but clear in virtue of themselves (they are called “immediate,” inasmuch as they do not have a middle demonstrating them, but “first,” in relation to other propositions which are proved through them); and which, furthermore, are better known than, prior to, and causes of, the conclusion.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 11 Secundo, ibi: sic enim erunt etc., excusat se ab additione alterius particulae, quae videbatur apponenda: quod scilicet demonstratio ex propriis principiis procederet. Sed ipse dicit quod hoc intelligitur per ea, quae dicta sunt. Nam si propositiones demonstrationis sunt causae conclusionis, necesse est quod sint propria principia eius: oportet enim causas esse proportionatas effectibus.	Secondly (71b22), he justifies himself for not adding another element which, it might seem, should be added, namely, that demonstration proceeds from proper principles. But he says that this is understood in virtue of the elements he did state. For since the propositions of a demonstration are causes of the conclusion, they must be its proper principles. For effects require proportionate causes.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 12 Tertio, ibi: syllogismus quidem etc., manifestat praemissae consequentiae necessitatem, dicens quod licet syllogismus non requirat praemissas conditiones in propositionibus, ex quibus procedit, requirit tamen eas demonstratio: aliter enim non faceret scientiam.	Thirdly (71b23), he manifests the necessity of the aforesaid consequence, saying that although a syllogism does not require these conditions in the premises from which it concludes, a demonstration does require them, for otherwise it would not produce science.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 13 Deinde, cum dicit: verum quidem etc., manifestat positam definitionem, manifestans etiam quod immediate dixerat, scilicet quod nisi praemissae conditiones demonstrationi adessent, scientiam facere non posset. Primo ergo, ostendit quod semper procedit ex veris ad hoc quod scientiam faciat: quia quod non est, non est scire; sicut diametrum esse symmetrum, idest commensurabilem lateri quadrati (dicuntur enim quantitates incommensurabiles, quarum non potest accipi aliqua mensura communis; et huiusmodi quantitates sunt, quarum non est proportio ad invicem sicut numeri ad numerum; quod de necessitate contingit de diametro quadrati et eius latere, ut patet ex X Euclidis). Quod autem non est verum, non est: nam esse et esse verum convertuntur. Oportet ergo id quod scitur esse verum. Et sic conclusionem demonstrationis, quae facit scire, oportet esse veram, et per consequens eius propositiones: non enim contingit verum sciri ex falsis, etsi concludi possit ex eis, ut infra ostendet.	Then (71b24) he explains this definition as well as the subsequent statement that unless these conditions are fulfilled in a demonstration it cannot beget science. First, therefore, he shows that a demonstration must proceed from true principles in order to beget science, because there cannot be scientific knowledge of that which does not exist, for example, that the diagonal is symmetrical, i.e., commensurable with the side of the square. For those quantities are said to be incommensurable which lack a common measuring unit. These are quantities whose ratio to one another cannot be expressed in terms of one number to another number. That this is the case with the diagonal of a square and its side is plain from Euclid’s sixteenth proposition. Now what is not true does not exist, for to be and to be true are convertible. Therefore, anything scientifically known must be true. Consequently, the conclusion of a demonstration which does beget scientific knowing must be true, and a fortiori its premises. For the true cannot be known in a scientific way from the false, although something true can follow as a conclusion from something false, as he will show later (cf. Lecture 13).
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 14 Secundo, ibi: ex primis autem etc., ostendit quod demonstratio sit ex primis et immediatis, sive indemonstrabilibus. Non enim contingit aliquem habere scientiam, nisi habeat demonstrationem eorum, quorum potest esse demonstratio, et hoc dico per se, et non per accidens. Et hoc ideo dicit, quia possibile esset scire aliquam conclusionem, non habentem demonstrationem praemissorum, etiam si essent demonstrabilia: quia sciret eam per alia principia; et hoc esset secundum accidens.	Secondly (71b27), he shows that the demonstration is composed of first and immediate or indemonstrable principles. For no one can possess scientific knowledge unless he possesses the demonstration of things that can be demonstrated—“and I am speaking per se and not per accidens.” He says this because it would be possible to know some conclusion without having a demonstration of the premises, even were they demonstrable; because one would know it through other principles, and this would be accidental.
Detur ergo quod aliquis demonstrator syllogizet ex demonstrabilibus, sive mediatis: aut ergo habet illorum demonstrationem, aut non habet: si non habet, ergo non scit praemissa, et ita nec conclusionem propter praemissa; si autem habet, cum in demonstrationibus non sit abire in infinitum, ut infra ostendet, tandem erit devenire ad aliqua immediata et indemonstrabilia. Et sic oportet quod demonstratio ex immediatis procedat, vel statim, vel per aliqua media. Unde et in primo libro topicorum dicitur quod demonstratio est ex primis et veris, aut ex his quae per ea fidem sumpserunt.	Suppose, therefore, that a demonstrator syllogizes from demonstrable, i.e., mediate, premises. Now he either possesses a demonstration of those premises or he does not. If he does not, then he does not know the premises in a scientific way; nor consequently, the conclusion because of the premises. But if he does possess their demonstration, then, since one may not proceed to infinity in demonstrations, principles immediate and indemonstrable must be reached. And so it is required that demonstration proceed from principles that are immediate either straightway or through middles. Hence it is stated in Topics I that demonstration is composed of first and true statements or of statements made credible by these.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 15 Tertio, ibi: causas quoque etc., probat quod demonstrationis propositiones sint causae conclusionis, quia tunc scimus, cum causas cognoscimus. Et ex hoc concludit ulterius quod sint priores et notiores, quia omnis causa est naturaliter prior et notior suo effectu. Oportet autem quod causa conclusionis demonstrativae sit notior, non solum quantum ad cognitionem quid est, sed etiam quantum ad cognitionem quia est. Non enim ad demonstrandum quod eclipsis solis est, sufficit scire quod est lunae interpositio, sed oportet etiam scire quod luna interponitur inter solem et terram. Et quia prius et notius dicitur dupliciter, scilicet quoad nos, et secundum naturam; dicit consequenter quod ea, ex quibus procedit demonstratio, sunt priora et notiora simpliciter et secundum naturam, et non quoad nos.	Thirdly (71b29), he proves that the propositions of a demonstration are the causes of the conclusion, because we know in a scientific manner when we know the causes. And in virtue of this he shows that they are prior and better known, because every cause is by nature prior and better known than its effect. However, the cause of a demonstrated conclusion must be better known not only with respect to the knowledge of what it is, but also with respect to the knowledge that it is. For in order to demonstrate that there is an eclipse of the sun, it is not enough to know, that the moon is interposed; in addition it is necessary to know that the moon is interposed between the sun and the earth. Again, because prior i and better known are taken in two ways, namely, in reference to us and according to nature, he says that the things from which a demonstration, proceeds are prior and better known absolutely and according to nature, and not in reference to us.
Et ad huius expositionem dicit quod priora et notiora simpliciter sunt illa, quae sunt remota a sensu ut universalia. Priora autem et notiora quoad nos sunt proxima sensui, scilicet singularia, quae opponuntur universalibus, sive oppositione prioris et posterioris, sive oppositione propinqui et remoti.	To elucidate this he says that “those things are prior and better known absolutely,” which are farthest from sense, as are universals; but “the prior and better known in reference to us” are nearest to sense, namely, the singulars, which are opposed to universals in the way that the prior and the later are opposite, or in the way that the nearest and the farthest are opposite.
lib. 1 l. 4 n. 16 Videtur autem contrarium huius haberi in I Physic., ubi dicitur quod universalia sunt priora quoad nos, et posteriora secundum naturam. Sed dicendum est quod hic loquitur de ordine singularis ad universale simpliciter, quorum ordinem oportet accipere secundum ordinem cognitionis sensitivae et intellectivae in nobis. Cognitio autem sensitiva est in nobis prior intellectiva, quia intellectualis cognitio ex sensu procedit in nobis. Unde et singulare est prius et notius quoad nos quam universale. In I autem Physic. non ponitur ordo universalis ad singulare simpliciter, sed magis universalis ad minus universale, ut puta, animalis ad hominem, et sic oportet quod quoad nos, universalius sit prius et magis notum.	However, it seems that the contrary of this is found in Physics I where it is stated that universals are prior in reference to us and later according to nature. But it should be said that there [in the Posterior Analytics] he is speaking of the order of singular to universal absolutely; and this order must be taken according to the order of sensitive and intellectual knowledge in us. Now in us sensitive knowledge is prior to intellectual, because intellectual knowledge in us proceeds from sense. For this reason the singular is prior and better known in relation to us than the universal. But in Physics I he is not speaking of the order of the universal to the singular absolutely but of the order of the more universal to the less universal, for example of animal to man. In this case the more universal is prior and better known in reference to us.
In omni enim generatione, quod est in potentia est prius tempore et posterius natura, quod autem est completum in actu est prius natura et posterius tempore. Cognitio autem generis est quasi potentialis, in comparatione ad cognitionem speciei, in qua actu sciuntur omnia essentialia rei. Unde in generatione scientiae nostrae prius est cognoscere magis commune quam minus commune.	For in every instance of generation, that which is in potency is prior in time but is later according to nature; whereas that which is complete in act is prior by nature but later in time. Now one’s knowledge of a genus is, as it were, potential in comparison to one’s knowledge of the species in which all the essentials of a thing are actually known. Hence, too, in the generation of our science, knowledge of the more common precedes knowledge of the less common.
Item, in libro Physic. dicitur quod innata est nobis via ex nobis notioribus; non ergo demonstratio fit ex his quae sunt priora simpliciter, sed quoad nos. Sed dicendum quod hic loquitur secundum quod id quod est in sensu est notius quoad nos, eo quod est in intellectu. Ibi autem secundum quod id quod est notius quoad nos, est etiam in intellectu. Ex singularibus autem quae sunt in sensu, non sunt demonstrationes, sed ex universalibus tantum, quae sunt in intellectu. Vel dicendum quod in omni demonstratione, oportet quod procedatur ex his, quae sunt notiora quoad nos, non tamen singularibus, sed universalibus.	Again, in the Physics it is stated that it is natural for us to proceed from what is better known to us. Therefore, it seems that a demonstration is composed not of things that are prior absolutely but in reference to But it must be said that here he is speaking according to the fact that what is in the sense is better known in reference to us than what is in the intellect; but there he was speaking according to the fact that what is better known in reference to us is also in the intellect. But demonstrations do not proceed from singulars which are in the sense but only from universals, which are in the intellect.
Non enim aliquid potest fieri nobis notum, nisi per id quod est magis notum nobis. Quandoque autem id quod est magis notum quoad nos, est etiam magis notum simpliciter et secundum naturam; sicut accidit in mathematicis, in quibus, propter abstractionem a materia, non fiunt demonstrationes nisi ex principiis formalibus. Et in talibus fiunt demonstrationes ex his quae sunt notiora simpliciter. Item, quandoque id quod est notius quoad nos non est notius simpliciter, sicut accidit in naturalibus, in quibus essentiae et virtutes rerum, propter hoc quod in materia sunt, sunt occultae, sed innotescunt nobis per ea, quae exterius de ipsis apparent. Unde in talibus fiunt demonstrationes ut plurimum per effectus, qui sunt notiores quoad nos, et non simpliciter. Nunc autem non loquitur de hoc modo demonstrationum, sed de primo.	Or it might be said that in every demonstration one must proceed from things better known to us, provided they are not singulars but universals. For something is made known to us only by that which is more known to us. But sometimes that which is more known in reference to us is also more known absolutely and according to nature, as happens in mathematics where on account of abstraction from matter the demonstrations proceed from formal principles alone. In this case the demonstrations proceed from things which are more known absolutely. But sometimes that which is more known in reference to us is not more known absolutely, as happens in natural sciences where the essences and powers of things are hidden, because they are in matter, but are disclosed to us through the things which appear outwardly. Hence in these sciences the demonstrations are for the most part made through effects which are better known in reference to us but not absolutely. But he is not now speaking of this form of demonstration, but of the first.
Quia vero in hac manifestatione hoc etiam omiserat manifestare, quod demonstratio esset ex propriis principiis, consequenter subdit quod hoc habetur etiam ex praemissis. Per hoc enim quod dicitur quod demonstratio est ex primis, habetur quod sit ex propriis principiis, sicut et superius dictum est. Idem enim videtur esse primum et principium: nam primum in unoquoque genere et maximum est causa omnium eorum, quae sunt post, ut dicitur in II methaphysicae.	Finally, because in his explanation he neglected to point out that demonstration should proceed from proper principles, he hastens to add that this fact is easily ascertainable from what he did say. For from the fact that he stated that demonstration is from things which are first, it follows that it is from proper principles, as he stated above. For “first” and “principle” seem to be the same: for that which is first and highest in each genus is the cause of all the things that are after it, as it is stated in Metaphysics II.

Lecture 5 First and immediate propositions

Latin	English
	Lecture 5 (72a8-24) FIRST AND IMMEDIATE PROPOSITIONS
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 1 Quia superius philosophus dixerat quod demonstratio est ex primis et immediatis, et haec ab ipso nondum manifestata erant, ideo intendit ista notificare. Et dividitur in partes tres: in prima, ostendit quid sit propositio immediata; in secunda vero ostendit quod oporteat huiusmodi propositiones esse notiores conclusione; ibi: quoniam autem oportet credere et scire etc.; in tertia, excludit quosdam errores, qui ex praedictis occasionem habebant; ibi: quibusdam quidem igitur et cetera. Circa primum duo facit: primo, ostendit quid sit propositio immediata; secundo, dividit ipsam; ibi: immediati autem principii et cetera.	Because the Philosopher had stated above that demonstration is from “first and immediate principles,” but had not yet identified them, he now sets out to identify them. And this is divided into three parts. In the first part he shows what an immediate proposition is. In the second part he shows that such propositions must be better known than the conclusion (72a25) [L. 6]. In the third part he excludes certain errors which arose from the foregoing (72b5) [L. 7]. Concerning the first he does two things. First, he shows what an immediate principle is. Secondly, h divides them (72a15).
Circa primum hoc modo procedit. Primo namque, resumit quod supra dictum erat, scilicet quod principium demonstrationis sit propositio immediata: nam et supra dixerat quod demonstratio est ex primis et immediatis.	With respect to the first he proceeds this way. First (72a8), he recall, what has been said above, namely, that a principle of demonstration I, an immediate proposition, for he had also stated above that a demonstration is composed of things which are first and immediate.
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 2 Secundo, ibi: immediata autem etc., definit immediatam propositionem, et dicit quod immediata propositio est qua non est altera prior. Cuius quidem notificationis ratio ex praedictis apparet. Dictum est enim supra quod demonstratio est ex prioribus. Quandocunque igitur aliqua propositio est mediata, idest habens medium per quod demonstretur praedicatum de subiecto, oportet quod priores ea sint propositiones ex quibus demonstratur: nam praedicatum conclusionis per prius inest medio quam subiecto; cui etiam per prius inest medium quam praedicatum. Relinquitur ergo quod illa propositio, qua non est altera prior, sit immediata.	Secondly (ibid.), he defines the immediate proposition and says that a immediate proposition is one which has no other one prior to it. the reason underlying this description is clear from what has been said. For it has been said above that demonstration is composed of things that, are prior. Accordingly, whenever a proposition is mediate, i.e., has a middle through which the predicate is demonstrated of its subject, it is required that there be prior propositions by which this one is demonstrated. For the predicate of a conclusion is present in the middle previously to being present in the subject; in which, however, the middle is present before the predicate is. Therefore, it follows that that proposition which does not have some other one prior to it is immediate.
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 3 Tertio, ibi: propositio autem est etc., ostendit quid sit propositio, quae ponitur in definitione immediatae propositionis. Et circa hoc tria facit. Primo namque definit propositionem simpliciter, dicens quod propositio est altera pars enunciationis, in qua praedicatur unum de uno. Habet enim enunciatio duas partes, scilicet affirmationem et negationem. Oportet autem quod omnis syllogizans alteram earum proponat, non autem utramque: hoc enim est proprium eius, qui a principio quaestionem movet. Unde per hoc separatur propositio a problemate. Sicut etiam in uno syllogismo non concluditur nisi unum, ita oportet quod propositio, quae est syllogismi principium, sit una. Una autem est in qua est unum de uno. Unde per hoc quod philosophus dicit unum de uno, separatur propositio ab enunciatione, quae dicitur plures, in qua plura de uno vel unum de pluribus praedicatur.	Thirdly (720), he shows what is the nature of the proposition which is mentioned in the definition of an immediate proposition. Concerning this he does three things: First, he defines absolutely what a proposition is, saying that it is one or the other part of an enunciation in which one thing is predicated of one thing. For the enunciation has two parts, namely, affirmation and negation. For anyone who syllogizes must propose one or the other of these parts but not both, for this latter procedure is characteristic of one who first raises a question. (Hence it is on this basis that proposition is distinguished from a problem). For just as one and only one thing is concluded in one syllogism, so the proposition which is a principle of the syllogism should be one—and it is one if one thing is stated of one thing. Hence in asserting that it is “one of one,” he distinguishes the proposition from the enunciation which is said to be “of several,” whether sundry things are said of one thing or of one thing sundry.
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 4 Secundo, ibi: dialectica etc., ponit differentiam inter dialecticam propositionem et demonstrativam, dicens quod cum propositio accipiat alteram partem enunciationis, dialectica indifferenter accipit quancunque earum. Habet enim viam ad utranque partem contradictionis, eo quod ex probabilibus procedit. Unde etiam et in proponendo accipit utramlibet partem contradictionis et quaerendo proponit. Demonstrativa autem propositio accipit alteram partem determinate, quia nunquam habet demonstrator viam, nisi ad verum demonstrandum. Unde etiam semper proponendo accipit veram partem contradictionis. Propter hoc etiam non interrogat, sed sumit, qui demonstrat, quasi notum.	Secondly (72a10), he lays down the difference between the dialectical and the demonstrative proposition, saying that whereas the demonstrative proposition takes one definite side of a question, the dialectical takes either side indifferently. For since dialectic begins with the probable, it can lead to each side of a contradiction. Hence when it lays down its propositions, it employs both parts of a contradiction and presents them in the form of a question [Is an animal that walks on its feet a man, or not?]. But a demonstrative proposition takes one side definitively, because a demonstrator never has any other alternative but to demonstrate the truth. Hence in forming its propositions he always assumes the true side of a contradiction [An animal which walks on two feet is a man, is it not?]. On this account he does not ask but posits something as known in the demonstration.
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 5 Tertio, ibi: enunciatio autem etc., definit enunciationem quae ponitur in definitione propositionis, dicens quod enunciatio complectitur utranque partem contradictionis, ut ex dictis patet. Quid autem sit contradictio consequenter ostendit, dicens quod contradictio est oppositio, cuius non est medium secundum se. Quamvis enim in privatione et habitu, et in contrariis immediatis non sit medium circa determinatum subiectum, tamen est medium simpliciter, nam lapis neque caecus, neque videns est, et albedo neque par, neque impar est. Et hoc etiam quod habent de immediatione circa determinatum subiectum, habent in quantum aliquid participant contradictionis: nam privatio est negatio in subiecto determinato. Et alterum etiam contrariorum habet aliquid privationis. Sed contradictio simpliciter in omnibus caret medio; et hoc non habet ab alio, sed ex seipsa; et propter hoc dicit quod eius non est medium secundum se.	Thirdly (72a11), he defines the term, “enunciation,” which appeared in the definition of a proposition, saying that an enunciation embraces both sides of a contradiction, as is clear from what has been said. Then he shows what contradiction is, saying that contradiction is a form of opposition between whose parts there is of itself no middle. For although between privation and possession and between immediate contraries there is no middle in a given subject, nevertheless, absolutely speaking, there is one; for a stone is neither blind nor seeing, and something white is neither even nor odd. Furthermore, whatever immediacy they have in relation to a definite subject is traced to their participation in contradiction, for privation is negation in a definite subject; and of two things that are immediately contrary, one has some of the marks of privation. But contradiction in the full sense lacks a middle in all cases. And this belongs to it of its very nature and not in virtue of something else. Hence he says that of itself it has no medium.
Exponit etiam consequenter quid sit pars contradictionis: est enim contradictio oppositio affirmationis et negationis. Unde altera pars eius est affirmatio, quae praedicat aliquid de aliquo; altera vero negatio, quae removet aliquid ab aliquo.	He then explains what the parts of a contradiction are. For contradiction is an opposition of affirmation and negation; hence one of its parts is affirmation, which asserts something of something, and the other is negation, which denies something of something.
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 6 Deinde cum dicit: immediati autem etc. dividit immediatum principium. Et circa hoc duo facit: primo dividit; secundo subdividit; ibi: positiones autem quaedam et cetera. Dicit ergo primo quod immediatum principium syllogismi duplex est. Unum est quod dicitur positio, quam non contingit demonstrare et ex hoc immediatum dicitur; neque tamen aliquem docendum, idest qui doceri debet in demonstrativa scientia, necesse est habere, idest mente concipere sive ei assentire. Aliud vero est, quod dicitur dignitas vel maxima propositio, quam necesse est habere in mente et ei assentire quemlibet, qui doceri debet. Et manifestum est quod quaedam principia talia sunt ut probatur in IV metaphysicae de hoc principio, quod affirmatio et negatio non sunt simul vera, cuius contrarium nullus mente credere potest etsi ore proferat. Et in talibus utimur nomine praedicto, scilicet dignitatis vel maximae propositionis, propter huiusmodi principiorum certitudinem ad manifestandum alia.	Then (72a15) he divides immediate principle. Concerning this he does two things. First, he divides. Secondly, he subdivides (72a19). He says therefore first (7205), that there are two types of immediate principles of a syllogism: the first is called a “position” [thesis] and is said to be immediate because one does not demonstrate (neither is it required that the student, i.e., the one being instructed in the demonstrative science, have it, i.e., advert to it or assent to it); the other is called a “dignity” or “maxim,” which anyone who is to be instructed must have in his mind and assent to. That there are such principles is clear from Metaphysics IV, where it is proved that one such is the principle that “affirmation and negation are not simultaneously true,” for no one can believe the contrary of this in his mind ‘ even though he should state it orally. To such principles we give the aforesaid name of “dignity” or “maxim” on account of their certainty in manifesting other things.
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 7 Ad huius autem divisionis intellectum sciendum est quod quaelibet propositio, cuius praedicatum est in ratione subiecti, est immediata et per se nota, quantum est in se. Sed quarundam propositionum termini sunt tales, quod sunt in notitia omnium, sicut ens, et unum, et alia quae sunt entis, in quantum ens: nam ens est prima conceptio intellectus. Unde oportet quod tales propositiones non solum in se, sed etiam quoad omnes, quasi per se notae habeantur. Sicut quod, non contingit idem esse et non esse; et quod, totum sit maius sua parte: et similia. Unde et huiusmodi principia omnes scientiae accipiunt a metaphysica, cuius est considerare ens simpliciter et ea, quae sunt entis.	To clarify this division it should be noted that any proposition whose predicate is included within the notion of its subject is immediate and known in virtue of itself as it stands. However, in the case of some of these propositions the terms are such that they are understood by everyone, as being and one and those other notions that are characteristic of being precisely as being: for being is the first concept in the intellect. Hence it is necessary that propositions of this kind be held as known in virtue of themselves not only as they stand but also in reference to us. Examples of these are the propositions that “It does not occur that the same thing is and is not” and that “The whole is greater than its part,” and others like these. Hence all the sciences take principles of this kind from metaphysics whose task it is to consider being absolutely and the characteristics of being.
Quaedam vero propositiones sunt immediatae, quarum termini non sunt apud omnes noti. Unde, licet praedicatum sit de ratione subiecti, tamen quia definitio subiecti non est omnibus nota, non est necessarium quod tales propositiones ab omnibus concedantur. Sicut haec propositio: omnes recti anguli sunt aequales, quantum est in se, est per se nota sive immediata, quia aequalitas cadit in definitione anguli recti. Angulus enim rectus est, quem facit linea recta super aliam rectam cadens, ita quod ex utraque parte anguli reddantur aequales. Et ideo, cum quadam positione recipiuntur huiusmodi principia.	On the other hand, there are some immediate propositions whose terms are not known by everyone. Hence, although their predicate may be included in the very notion of their subject, yet because the definition of the subject is not known to everyone, it is not necessary that such propositions be conceded by everyone. (Thus the proposition, “All right angles are equal,” is in itself a proposition which is immediate and known in virtue of itself, because equality appears in the definition of a right angle. For a right angle is one which a straight line form when it meets another straight line in such a way that the angles on each side are equal). Therefore, such principles are received as being posited or laid down.
Est et alius modus, quo aliquae propositiones suppositiones dicuntur. Sunt enim quaedam propositiones, quae non possunt probari nisi per principia alterius scientiae; et ideo oportet quod in illa scientia supponantur, licet probentur per principia alterius scientiae. Sicut a puncto ad punctum rectam lineam ducere, supponit geometra et probat naturalis; ostendens quod inter quaelibet duo puncta sit linea media.	There is yet another way, and according to it certain propositions are called “suppositions.” For there are some propositions which can be proved only by the principles of some other science; therefore, they must be supposed in the one science, although they are proved by the principles of the other science. Thus the geometer supposes that he can draw one straight line from one point to another, but the philosopher of nature proves it by showing that there is one straight line between any two points.
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 8 Deinde cum dicit: positionis autem quae est etc., subdividit alterum membrum primae divisionis, scilicet positionem: dicens quod quaedam positio est, quae accipit aliquam partem enunciationis, scilicet affirmationem vel negationem; quod significat cum dicit: ut dico aliquid esse aut non esse. Et haec positio suppositio dicitur, quia tanquam veritatem habens supponitur. Alia autem positio est, quae non significat esse vel non esse, sicut definitio, quae positio dicitur. Ponitur enim ab arithmetico definitio unitatis, tanquam quoddam principium, scilicet quod unitas est indivisibile secundum quantitatem. Sed tamen definitio non dicitur suppositio: illud enim proprie supponitur, quod verum vel falsum significat. Et ideo subdit quod non idem est, quod quid est unitas, quod neque verum, neque falsum significat, et esse unitatem, quod significat verum vel falsum.	Then (72a19) he subdivides a member of the original division, namely, “position,” and says that there is one type of position which takes one side of an enunciation, namely, either affirmation or negation. He refers to this type when he says, “i.e., asserts either the existence or non-existence of a subject.” Such a position is called a “supposition” or “hypothesis,” because it is accepted as having truth. Another type of position is the one which does not signify existence or non-existence: in this way a definition is a position. For the definition of “one” is laid down in arithmetic as a principle, namely, that “one is the quantitatively indivisible.” Nevertheless a definition is not called a supposition, for a supposition, strictly speaking, is a statement which signifies the true or the false. Consequently, he adds that “the definition of ‘one,”’ inasmuch as it signifies neither the true nor the false, “is not the same as ‘to be one,”’ which does signify the true or the false.
lib. 1 l. 5 n. 9 Sed potest quaeri: cum definitio non sit propositio significans esse vel non esse, quomodo ponatur in subdivisione immediatae propositionis. Sed dicendum quod in subdivisione non resumit immediatam propositionem ad subdividendum, sed immediatum principium. Principium autem syllogismi dici potest non solum propositio, sed etiam definitio. Vel potest dici quod licet definitio in se non sit propositio in actu, est tamen in virtute propositio quia cognita definitione, apparet definitionem de subiecto vere praedicari.	Now it might be asked how it is that definition is set down as a member of the subdivision of immediate proposition, if a definition is not a proposition signifying either existence or non-existence. One might answer that in this subdivision he was not subdividing immediate proposition but, immediate principle. Or one might answer that although a definition as such is not an actual proposition, it is one virtually, because once a definition is known, it becomes clear that it is truly predicated of the subject.

Lecture 6 Knowledge of immediate principles

Latin	English
	Lecture 6 (7245-b4) KNOWLEDGE OF IMMEDIATE PRINCIPLES
lib. 1 l. 6 n. 1 Postquam ostendit philosophus quae sunt immediata principia, hic de eorum cognitione determinat. Et circa hoc duo facit: primo, ostendit quod immediata principia sunt magis nota conclusione; secundo, ostendit quod etiam falsitas contrariorum debet esse notissima; ibi: non solum autem et cetera. Circa primum tria facit.	After showing what immediate principles are, the Philosopher now determines concerning our knowledge of them. Apropos of this he does two things. First, he shows that immediate principles are better known than the conclusion. Secondly, that the falsity of their contraries ought to be most evident (72a38). Concerning the first he does three things.
lib. 1 l. 6 n. 2 Primo, proponit intentum dicens quod quia nos credimus alicui rei conclusae et scimus eam per hoc quod habemus syllogismum demonstrativum, et hoc quidem est in quantum scimus syllogismum demonstrativum; necesse est non solum praecognoscere prima principia conclusioni, sed etiam ea magis cognoscere, quam conclusionem.	First (72a25), he states his proposition and says that because we give our assent to a thing which has been concluded and we know it scientifically precisely because we have a demonstrative syllogism (and this insofar as we know the demonstrative syllogism in a scientific way), it is necessary not only to know the first principles of the conclusion beforehand, but also to know them better than we know the conclusion.
Addit autem aut omnia, aut quaedam; quia quaedam principia probatione indigent, ad hoc quod sint nota, et antequam probentur, non sunt magis nota conclusione. Sicut quod, angulus exterior trianguli valeat duos angulos intrinsecos sibi oppositos, antequam probetur, ita ignotum est, sicut quod, triangulus habeat tres angulos aequales duobus rectis. Quaedam vero principia sunt quae, statim proposita, sunt magis nota conclusione. Vel aliter: quaedam conclusiones sunt quae sunt notissimae, utpote per sensum acceptae, sicut quod, sol eclipsetur. Unde principium per quod probatur non est simpliciter magis notum, scilicet quod, luna interponatur inter solem et terram, licet sit magis notum in via rationis procedentis ex causa in effectum. Vel aliter: hoc ideo dicit, quia etiam supra dixerat quod quaedam principia tempore prius cognoscuntur quam conclusio, quaedam vero simul tempore nota fiunt cum conclusione.	He adds, “either all or some,” because some principles require proof in order to be known; so that before they are proved, they are not better known than the conclusion. Thus the fact that an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to its two opposite interior angles is, until proved, as unknown as the fact that a triangle has three angles equal to two right angles. But there are other principles which, once they are posited, are better known than the conclusion. Or, in another way, there are some conclusions which are most evident; for example, those based on sense perception, as that the sun is eclipsed. Hence the principle through which this is proved is not better known absolutely—the principle being that the moon is between the sun and the earth—although it is better known within the reasoning process that goes from cause to effect. Or, in another way, he says this because he had said above that in the order of time certain principles are known before the conclusion, but others are known along with the conclusion at the same moment of time.
lib. 1 l. 6 n. 3 Secundo; ibi: semper enim propter quod etc., probat propositum dupliciter. Primo ratione ostensiva; sic: propter quod unumquodque et illud est magis; sicut si amamus aliquem, propter alterum; ut si magistrum propter discipulum, discipulum magis amamus. Sed conclusiones scimus et eis credimus propter principia. Ergo magis scimus principia et magis eis credimus, quam conclusioni.	Secondly (72a28), he proves his proposition in two ways: first, with an ostensive argument, thus: That in virtue of which something is so, is itself more so; for example, if we love someone because of someone else, as a master because of his disciple, we love the disciple more. But we know conclusions and give our assent to them because of the principles. Therefore, we know the principles with more conviction and give them stronger assent than the conclusion.
lib. 1 l. 6 n. 4 Attendendum est autem circa hanc rationem quod causa semper est potior effectu suo. Quando ergo causa et effectus conveniunt in nomine, tunc illud nomen magis praedicatur de causa quam de effectu; sicut ignis est magis calidus quam ea, quae per ignem calefiunt. Quandoque vero causa et effectus non conveniunt in nomine et tunc licet nomen effectus non conveniat causae, tamen convenit ei aliquid dignius; sicut etsi in sole non sit calor, est tamen in eo virtus quaedam, quae est principium caloris.	Apropos of this reason it should be noted that a cause is always more noble than its effect. When, therefore, cause and effect have the same name, that name is said principally of the cause rather than of the effect; thus fire is primarily called hot rather than things heated by fire. But sometimes the name of the effect is not attributed to the cause. In that case, although the name the effect has does not belong to the cause, nevertheless, something more noble belongs to it. For example, although the sun does not possess heat, nevertheless, there is in it a certain power which is the principle of heat.
lib. 1 l. 6 n. 5 Deinde, cum dicit: non potest autem credere etc., probat idem ratione ducente ad impossibile, quae talis est. Principia praecognoscuntur conclusioni, ut supra habitum est; et sic quando principia cognoscuntur nondum conclusio est cognita. Si igitur principia non essent magis nota quam conclusio, sequeretur quod homo vel plus, vel aequaliter cognosceret ea, quae non novit quam ea quae novit. Hoc autem est impossibile. Ergo impossibile est quod principia non sint magis nota quam conclusio.	Then (72a33) he proves the same thing with a principle which leads to an impossibility. He reasons thus: Principles are known prior to the conclusion, as has been shown above; consequently, when the principles are known, the conclusion is not yet known. If, therefore, the principles were not more known than the conclusion, it would follow that a man would know things he does not know either as well as or better than the things he does know. But this is impossible. Therefore, it is also impossible that the principles not be better known than the conclusion.
Littera sic exponitur: neque sciens, neque alius melius dispositus in cognoscendo quam sciens, si contingeret aliquem esse talem (quod dicit propter intelligentem principia, de quo adhuc non est manifestum), non potest magis credere quae non contingunt, scilicet sciri ab eo, his, quae iam scit. Accidet autem hoc, nisi aliquis de numero credentium conclusionem per demonstrationem, praecognoverit, idest magis cognoverit principia. In Graeco planius habetur sic: non est autem possibile credere magis his, quae novit, quae non existit nec sciens, neque melius dispositus quam si contigerit sciens.	Phrase by phrase this is explained in the following manner: “A man who knows scientifically or even one who knows in a way superior to this, if such there be,” (he says this, having in mind the person who has the intuition of principles, a state he has not yet explained), “cannot give more credence to things he does not know than to things he does know. But this will be the case if one who assents to a conclusion obtained through demonstration did not foreknow,” i.e., did not know the principles better. In Greek it is stated more clearly: “But no one, whether he has scientific knowledge or that form of knowledge which is better than the scientific (if there be such), can believe anything more firmly than the things he knows.”
lib. 1 l. 6 n. 6 Tertio, ibi: magis enim necesse est etc., exponit quod dixerat, dicens quod hoc, quod dictum est, quod magis necesse est credere principiis aut omnibus aut quibusdam quam conclusioni, intelligendum est de illo, qui debet accipere scientiam per demonstrationem. Si enim aliunde conclusio esset nota, sicut per sensum, nihil prohiberet principia non esse magis nota conclusione in via illa.	Thirdly (7206), he clarifies what he had said, saying that his statement to the effect that it is more necessary to believe the principles (either all or some) than the conclusion should be understood as referring to a person who is to acquire a discipline through demonstration. For if the conclusion were more known through some other source, such as sense-perception, nothing would preclude the principles not being better known than the conclusion in that case.
lib. 1 l. 6 n. 7 Deinde, cum dicit: non solum oportet etc., ostendit quod non solum oportet magis cognoscere principia quam conclusionem demonstrandam, sed etiam nihil debet esse certius quam quod opposita principiis sint falsa. Et hoc ideo, quia oportet scientem non esse incredibilem principiis, sed firmissime eis assentire. Quicunque autem dubitat de falsitate unius oppositorum, non potest firmiter inhaerere opposito: quia semper formidat de veritate alterius oppositi.	Then (72a38) he shows that it is not only necessary to know the principles more than the demonstrative conclusion, but nothing should be more certain than the fact that the opposites of the principles are false. And this because the scientific knower must not disbelieve the principles, but assent to them most firmly. But anyone who doubts the falseness of one of two opposites cannot assent firmly to the other, because he will always fear that the opposite one might be true.

Lecture 7 Discussion of two errors-exclusion of the first one

Latin	English
	Lecture 7 (72b5-24) DISCUSSION OF TWO ERRORS—EXCLUSION OF THE FIRST ONE
lib. 1 l. 7 n. 1 Postquam determinavit philosophus de cognitione principiorum demonstrationis, hic excludit errores ex praedeterminata veritate exortos. Et circa hoc tria facit: primo, ponit errores; secundo, rationes errantium; ibi: supponentes quidem igitur etc., tertio, excludit rationum radices; ibi: nos autem dicimus et cetera.	After determining about the knowledge of the principles of demonstration, the Philosopher now excludes the errors which have arisen from these determinations. Concerning this he does three things. First, he states the errors. Secondly, the reasons they erred (72b8). Thirdly, he removes the roots of these reasons (72b18).
lib. 1 l. 7 n. 2 Dicit ergo primo quod ex una veritate superius determinata duo errores contrarii sunt exorti. Determinatum est enim supra quod oportet principia demonstrationis scire, immo quod etiam ea magis scire oportet. Sed primum solum sufficit ad propositum. Propter hoc autem videtur quibusdam quod nullius rei sit scientia; quibusdam autem videtur quod sit quidem scientia, sed quod omnium possit haberi scientia per demonstrationem. Neutrum autem horum est verum, nec necessario consequitur ex rationibus eorum.	He says therefore first (72b5), that two contrary errors have arisen from one of the truths established above. For it has been established above that the principles of demonstration must be known and must be even better known. But the first of these is sufficient for our purpose. For some, basing themselves on this first statement, have come to believe that there is no science of anything, whereas others believe that there is science, even to the extent of believing that there is science of everything through demonstration. But neither of these positions is true and neither follows necessarily from their reasons.
lib. 1 l. 7 n. 3 Deinde, cum dicit: supponentes etc., ponit rationes quibus in praedictos errores incidunt. Et primo ponit rationem dicentium quod non est scientia. Quae talis est. Principia demonstrationis aut procedunt in infinitum aut est status in eis. Si proceditur in infinitum, non est in eis accipere prima: quia infinita non est transire, ut ad primum veniatur: et ita non est primum cognoscere. Et in hoc recte argumentantur. Nam posteriora non possunt cognosci, ignoratis primis.	Then (72b8) he presents the reasons why they have fallen into these errors. And first of all he presents the reason given by those who say that there is no science, and it is this: The principles of demonstration either proceed to infinity or there is a halt somewhere. But if there is a process to infinity, nothing in that process can be taken as being first, because one cannot exhaust an infinite series and reach what is first. Consequently, it is not possible to know what is first. (They are correct in thus arguing, for the later things cannot be known unless the prior ones are known).
Si autem stetur in principiis, oportet quod prima nesciantur; si scire solum est per demonstrationem: non enim prima habent aliqua priora, per quae demonstrentur. Si autem prima ignorentur, oportet et posteriora iterum non scire simpliciter nec proprie: sed solum sub hac conditione, si principia sunt. Non enim potest per aliquid ignotum aliquid cognosci, nisi sub hac conditione, si illud primum quod ignotum est, sit. Ergo sequitur utroque modo, sive principia stent, sive in eis procedatur in infinitum, quod nullius rei est scientia.	On the other hand, if there is a halt in the principles, then even so, the first things are still not known, if the only way to know scientifically is through demonstration. For first things do not have prior principles through which they are demonstrated. But if the first things are not known, it follows again that the later things are not known in the strict and proper sense, but only on condition that there are principles. For it is not possible for something to be known in virtue of something not known, except on condition that that unknown be a principle. So in either case, whether the principles stop or go on to infinity, it follows that there is no science of anything.
lib. 1 l. 7 n. 4 Secundo, cum dicit: quidam autem etc., ponit rationem dicentium omnium esse scientiam per demonstrationem: quia praemissae radici, scilicet quod non esset scire nisi per demonstrationem, addebant aliam, scilicet quod posset circulariter demonstrari. Sic enim sequebatur quod etiamsi in principiis demonstrationis esset status, prima tamen principia erat scire per demonstrationem: quia illa prima dicebant demonstrari ex posterioribus. Nam circulariter demonstrare est demonstrare ex invicem, idest ut quod primo fuit principium, postmodum fiat conclusio et e converso.	Secondly (72b15), he presents the reasoning of those who say that there is science of everything through demonstration, because to their there is science of everything through demonstration, because to their basic premise-the only way to know scientifically is by demonstration—they added another, namely, that one may demonstrate circularly. From these premises it followed that even if a limit is reached in the series of the principles of demonstration, the first principles are still known through demonstration, because, they said, those principles were demonstrated by previous ones. For a circular demonstration is one which is reciprocal, i.e., something which was first a principle is later a conclusion, and vice versa.
lib. 1 l. 7 n. 5 Deinde, cum dicit: nos autem dicimus etc., excludit falsas radices praedictarum rationum. Et primo, hoc quod supponebant quod non esset scire nisi per demonstrationem. Secundo, hoc quod dicebant quod contingeret circulariter demonstrari; ibi: circulo quoque et cetera. Dicit ergo primo quod non omnis scientia est demonstrativa, idest per demonstrationem accepta; sed immediatorum principiorum est scientia indemonstrabilis, idest non per demonstrationem accepta.	Then (72b18) he cuts away the false bases of these arguments. First, their supposition that the only way to know scientifically is by demonstration. Secondly, their statement that it is legitimate to demonstrate circularly (72b25). He says therefore first (72b18), that not all scientific knowledge is demonstrative, i.e., obtained through demonstration, but the scientific knowledge of immediate principles is indemonstrable, i.e., not obtained by demonstration.
lib. 1 l. 7 n. 6 Sciendum est tamen quod hic Aristoteles large accipit scientiam pro qualibet certitudinali cognitione, et non secundum quod scientia dividitur contra intellectum, prout dicitur quod, scientia est conclusionum et intellectus principiorum.	However, it should be noted that Aristotle is here taking science in a wide sense to include any knowledge that is certain, and not in the sense in which science is set off against understanding, according to the dictum that science deals with conclusions and understanding [intuition] with principles.
lib. 1 l. 7 n. 7 Quod autem hoc necessarium sit, scilicet quod certa cognitio aliquorum habeatur sine demonstratione, sic probat. Necesse est scire priora, ex quibus est demonstratio; sed haec aliquando contingit reducere in aliqua immediata: alias oporteret dicere quod inter duo extrema, scilicet subiectum et praedicatum essent infinita media in actu; immo plus, quod non esset aliqua duo accipere, inter quae non essent infinita media. Qualitercunque autem media assumantur, est accipere aliquid alteri immediatum. Immediata autem, cum sint priora, oportet esse indemonstrabilia. Et ita patet quod necesse est aliquorum scientiam habere sine demonstratione.	But that it is necessary for some things to be held as certain without demonstration he proves in the following way: It is necessary that the prior things from which a demonstration proceeds be known in a scientific way. Furthermore, these must be ultimately reduced to something immediate; otherwise one would be forced to admit that there is an actual infinitude of middles between two extremes—in this case between the subject and predicate. Again, one would have to admit that no two extremes could be found between which there would not be an infinitude of middles. But as it is, the middles are such that it is possible to find two things which are immediate. But immediate principles, being prior, must be indemonstrable. Thus it is clear that it is necessary for some things to be scientifically known without demonstration.
lib. 1 l. 7 n. 8 Si ergo quaeratur quomodo immediatorum habeatur scientia, respondet quod non solum eorum est scientia, immo eorum cognitio est principium quoddam totius scientiae. Nam ex cognitione principiorum derivatur cognitio conclusionum, quarum proprie est scientia. Ipsa autem principia immediata non per aliquod medium extrinsecum cognoscuntur, sed per cognitionem propriorum terminorum. Scito enim quid est totum et quid est pars, cognoscitur quod omne totum est maius sua parte: quia in talibus propositionibus, ut supra dictum est, praedicatum est de ratione subiecti. Et ideo rationabiliter cognitio horum principiorum est causa cognitionis conclusionum: quia semper, quod est per se, est causa eius, quod est per aliud.	Therefore, if someone were to ask how the science of immediate principles is possessed, the answer would be that not only are they known in a scientific manner, but knowledge of them is the source of an science. For one passes from the knowledge of principles to a demonstration of conclusion on which science, properly speaking, bears. But those immediate principles are not made known through an additional middle but through an understanding of their own terms. For as soon as it is known what a whole is and what a part is, it is known that every whole is greater than its part, because in such a proposition, as has been stated above, the predicate is included in the very notion of the subject. And therefore it is reasonable that the knowledge of these principles is the cause of the knowledge of conclusions, because always, that which exists in virtue of itself is the cause of that which exists in virtue of something else.

Lecture 8 The second error is excluded by showing that circular demonstration is not acceptable

Latin	English
	Lecture 8 (72b-73a20) THE SECOND ERROR IS EXCLUDED BY SHOWING THAT CIRCULAR DEMONSTRATION IS NOT ACCEPTABLE
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 1 Postquam philosophus exclusit unam falsam radicem, ostendens quod non omnis scientia est per demonstrationem, hic excludit aliam, ostendens quod non contingit circulariter demonstrare.	After excluding one false basis by showing that not all science depends on demonstration, the Philosopher now excludes another by showing that it is not possible to demonstrate circularly.
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 2 Ad cuius evidentiam sciendum est quod circularis syllogismus dicitur, quando ex conclusione et altera praemissarum conversa concluditur reliqua. Sicut si fiat talis syllogismus: omne animal rationale mortale est risibile; omnis homo est animal rationale mortale; ergo omnis homo est risibilis: assumatur autem conclusio tanquam principium, et adiungatur ei minor conversa, hoc modo: omnis homo est risibilis; omne animal rationale mortale est homo; sequitur quod, omne animal rationale mortale sit risibile: quae erat maior primi syllogismi.	To understand this it should be noted that a demonstration is circular when the conclusion and one of the premises (in converted form) of a syllogism are used to prove the other premise. For example, we might form the following syllogism: Every rational mortal animal is risible; Every man is a rational mortal animal: Therefore, every man is risible. Now if the conclusion were to be used as one principle and the minor in converted form as the other, we would get: Every man is risible; Every rational mortal animal is a man: Therefore, every rational mortal animal is risible—which was the major of the first syllogism.
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 3 Ostendit autem Aristoteles per tres rationes quod non contingit circulariter demonstrare. Quarum prima est. In circulari syllogismo idem fit et principium et conclusio. Principium autem demonstrationis est prius et notius conclusione: ut supra ostensum est. Sequitur ergo quod idem sit prius et posterius respectu unius et eiusdem, et notius et minus notum. Hoc autem est impossibile. Ergo impossibile est circulariter demonstrare.	Accordingly, he. presents three arguments to show that it is not possible to demonstrate circularly. The first of these (72b25) is this: In a circular syllogism the same thing is at once a conclusion and a principle. But a principle of a demonstration is prior to and better known than the conclusion, as has been shown above. Therefore, it follows that a same thing is both prior to and subsequent to one same thing, and also more known and less known. But this is impossible. Therefore, it is impossible to demonstrate circularly.
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 4 Sed posset aliquis dicere quod idem potest esse prius et posterius alio et alio modo, scilicet ut hoc sit prius quoad nos, et illud sit prius simpliciter. Sicut singularia sunt priora quoad nos, et posteriora simpliciter; universalia vero e converso. Hoc autem modo inductio facit notum, scilicet altero modo a demonstratione. Nam demonstratio procedit ex prioribus simpliciter: inductio autem ex prioribus quoad nos.	But someone might say that a same thing can be both prior and subsequent, although not in the same way. For example, this might be prior in reference to us, but that prior absolutely. Thus singulars are prior in reference to us and subsequent absolutely: and conversely for universals. Again, induction makes something known in one way and demonstration in another way. For demonstration proceeds from things that are prior absolutely, but induction from things that are prior in reference to us.
Sed si sic fieret demonstratio circularis, ut scilicet primo concluderetur ex prioribus simpliciter, postea vero ex prioribus quoad nos; sequeretur quod non esset bene determinatum superius quid est scire. Dictum est enim quod scire est causam rei cognoscere. Et ideo ostensum est quod oportet demonstrationem, quae facit scire, ex prioribus simpliciter procedere. Si autem demonstratio, nunc ex prioribus simpliciter, nunc ex prioribus quoad nos procederet; oporteret etiam quod scire non solum esset causam rei cognoscere, sed dupliciter diceretur quia esset etiam quoddam scire per posteriora. Aut ergo oportebit sic dicere, aut oportebit dicere quod altera demonstratio, quae fit ex nobis notioribus, non sit simpliciter demonstratio.	Now if a circular demonstration were so constructed that something is first concluded from things that are absolutely prior, and then from things that are prior in reference to us, it would follow that our doctrine on scientific knowing was not well established. For we stated that to know scientifically is to know the cause of a thing. From this it followed that a demonstration which causes scientific knowledge must proceed from the absolutely prior. But if demonstration were at one time to proceed from the absolutely prior and at another time from things which are prior in reference to us, we would be forced to admit that scientific knowing is not confined to knowing the cause of a thing, but that there is another, namely, that form of knowing which proceeds from what is later. Therefore, one must either admit both or admit that the second form, namely, the demonstration which proceeds from what is better known to us is not a demonstration in the absolute sense.
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 5 Ex his autem apparet quare dialecticus syllogismus potest esse circularis. Procedit enim ex probabilibus. Probabilia autem dicuntur, quae sunt magis nota vel sapientibus vel pluribus. Et sic dialecticus syllogismus procedit ex his quae sunt magis nobis nota. Contingit autem idem esse magis et minus notum quoad diversos; et ideo nihil prohibet syllogismum dialecticum fieri circularem. Sed demonstratio fit ex notioribus simpliciter; et ideo, ut dictum est, non potest fieri demonstratio circularis.	The aforesaid also reveals why a dialectical syllogism can be circular. For it proceeds from things which are probable. But things are said to be probable if they are better known to the wise or to a great number of persons. Consequently, a dialectical syllogism proceeds from things that are better known to us. However, it happens that a same thing is better known to some and less known to others. Consequently, there is nothing to hinder a dialectical syllogism from being circular. But a demonstration is formed from things that are absolutely prior. Therefore, as we have already stated, there cannot be circular demonstration.
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 6 Secundam rationem ponit ibi: accidit autem etc.: quae talis est. Si demonstratio sit circularis, sequitur quod in demonstratione probetur idem per idem; ut si dicamus: si est hoc, est hoc. Sic autem facile est cuilibet demonstrare omnia. Hoc enim poterit facere quilibet, tam sciens quam ignorans. Et sic per demonstrationem non acquiritur scientia: quod est contra definitionem demonstrationis. Non ergo potest esse demonstratio circularis.	Then he sets forth the second argument (72b33) and it is this: If there were circular demonstration, it would follow that a same thing is demonstrated by the same thing, as if I were to say: If it is this, it is this. In this way it is easy for anyone to demonstrate everything, for anyone, wise or ignorant, will be able to do this. Accordingly, science is not acquired through demonstration. But this is against the definition of demonstration. Therefore, there cannot be circular demonstration.
Veritatem autem primae consequentiae hoc modo ostendit. Primo enim, dicit quod manifestum est quod accidit, circulari demonstratione facta, hoc quod prius dictum est, scilicet quod idem probetur per idem, si quis sumat tres terminos. Reflexionem autem fieri per multos, aut per paucos terminos nihil differt (nominat autem hic reflexionem processum, qui fit in demonstratione circulari a principio ad conclusionem, et iterum a conclusionem ad principium.) Huiusmodi ergo reflexio quantum ad vim argumentandi, sive fiat per multa, sive per pauca, non differt. Nec differt de paucis, aut de duobus. Eadem enim virtus arguendi est, si quis sic procedat: si est a, est b, et si est b, est c, et si est c, est d; et iterum reflectat dicens: si est d, est c, et si est c, est b, et si est b, est a; sicut si statim a principio reflecteret dicens: si est a, est b, et si est b, est a. Dicit autem per duos terminos, cum supra dixerit, tribus terminis positis, quia in deductione, quam faciet, utetur tertio termino, qui sit idem cum primo.	He proves the truth of the first consequence in the following way: It is obvious, first of all, that with a circular demonstration the same thing is proved by a same thing, as has been stated above, i.e., if only three terms are employed; although it makes no difference whether the reflexion be made with fewer terms or more. (By reflexion he means the process whereby one goes from principle to conclusion in a demonstration, and then from conclusion to principle). In such a reflexion it makes no difference, so far as the force of the argument is concerned, whether it involves several or fewer terms or even two. For an argument has the same force if one proceeds thus: “If it is A, it is B, and if it is B, it is C, and if it is C, it is D,” and then by reflecting continues, “If it is D, it is C, and if it is C, it is B, and if it is B, it is A”; or if he proceeds by reflecting at the very start, saying: “If it is A, it is B, and if it is B, it is A.” (Although he spoke above of three terms, he restricted himself to two terms in this example, because in the deduction he is about to make he will use a third term, which is the same as the first).
Deinde, cum dicit: cum enim etc., proponit formam argumentandi in tribus terminis, hoc modo: si sit a, est b; et si est b, est c; ergo si est a, ex necessitate est c. Deinde, cum dicit: si igitur cum sit a etc., per formam argumentandi praemissam ostendit quod in circulari demonstratione concluditur idem per idem, sumptis duobus terminis tantum. Erit enim dicere: si est a, est b; et reflectendo (quod est circulariter demonstrare): si est b, est a. Ex quibus duobus sequitur, secundum formam arguendi praemissam, si est a, est a.	Then (72b38) he gives the form of the argument in three terms, namely: “If it is A, it is B, and if it is B, it is C; therefore, if it is A, it is of necessity C.” Then (73a1) he shows by the aforesaid form of arguing that in a circular demonstration a same thing is proved by a same thing, using only two terms. For it consists in saying, “If it is A, it is B,” and then reflecting, “If it is B, it is A”—which is a circular demonstration. Now according to the above given form it follows from these two, that “if it is A, it is A.”
Quod sic patet. Sicut enim in prima deductione, quae fiebat per tres terminos, ad b sequebatur c; ita in deductione reflexa duorum terminorum, ad b sequitur a. Ponatur ergo quod idem significet a in secunda deductione reflexa, quod c significabat in prima directa, quae est per tres terminos. Igitur dicere in secunda deductione, si est b, est a, est hoc ipsum quod erat dicere in prima deductione, si est b, est c. Sed cum dicebatur in prima deductione, si est b, est c, sequebatur, si est a, est c. Ergo in deductione circulari sequitur, si est a, est a: quia c cum a idem ponitur. Et ita leve erit demonstrare omnia, ut dictum est.	That it does follow is obvious: for just as in the first deduction which involved three terms’ C followed from B, so in the reflex deduction of two terms, A followed from B. Let us suppose, then, that the A of the second deduction, i.e., the reflex, signifies the same thing that C signified in the first, i.e., in the direct deduction which was composed of three terms. Therefore, to state in the second deduction that “if it is B it is A” is to state the same thing as was stated in the first deduction, namely, that “if it is B, it is C.” But when it was stated in the first deduction that “if it is B, it is C,” it followed that “if it is A, it is C.” Therefore, in the circular deduction it follows that “if it is A, it is A,” since C is assumed to be the same as A. In this way, it will be easy to demonstrate all things, as has been said.
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 7 Tertiam rationem ponit; ibi: at vero nec hoc possibile est et cetera. Quae talis est. Ponentes omnia posse sciri per demonstrationem, quia demonstratio est circularis, necesse habent dicere quod omnia possunt demonstrari demonstratione circulari; et ita necesse habent dicere quod in demonstratione circulari ex conclusione possit concludi utraque praemissarum. Hoc autem non potest fieri nisi in his, quae ad se invicem convertuntur, idest convertibilia sunt, sicut propria. Sed non omnia sunt huiusmodi. Ergo vanum est dicere quod omnia possunt demonstrari, propter hoc quod demonstratio est circularis.	Then he presents the third argument (73a6) which is this: Those who suppose that everything can be known through demonstration on the ground that demonstration is circular, must grant that anything can be demonstrated by a circular demonstration and, as a consequence, grant that in a circular demonstration each of the premises can be concluded from the conclusion. However, the only cases in which this can be done are those in which mutual conversion is possible, i.e., in things that are convertible, as properties. But not all things are so related. Therefore, it is ridiculous to say that everything can be demonstrated on the ground that there are such things as circular demonstrations.
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 8 Quod autem oporteat in demonstratione circulari omnia esse convertibilia secundum positionem istorum, sic ostendit. Ostensum est in libro priorum quod, uno posito, non sequitur ex necessitate aliud; nec posito uno termino, nec posita una propositione tantum. Nam omnis syllogismus est ex tribus terminis et duabus propositionibus ad minus. Oportet ergo accipere tres terminos convertibiles in demonstratione circulari, scilicet a, b, c; ita quod a insit omni b et omni c, et haec scilicet b et c inhaereant sibi invicem, ita quod omne b sit c, et omne c sit b, et iterum haec insint ipsi a, ita quod omne a sit b, et omne a sit c. Et ita se habentibus terminis, contingit monstrare in prima figura ex alterutris, idest circulariter, omnia quaesita, idest conclusionem ex duabus praemissis et utramlibet praemissarum ex conclusione et altera conversa, sicut ostensum est in his, quae sunt de syllogismo, idest in libro priorum, in quo agitur de syllogismo simpliciter.	Now the reason is obvious why in a circular demonstration all the propositions must be convertible. For it has been shown in the book of Prior Analytics that if one thing is laid down, another does not follow of necessity, whether the thing laid down be one term or one proposition. For every syllogism must start with three terms and two propositions as a minimum. Therefore, in a circular demonstration three terms which are convertible must be taken, namely, A, B, C, such that A is in every B and in every C, and these, namely, B and C, must inhere in each other, so that every B is C and every C is B, and also inhere in A so that every A is B and every A is C. And so, the terms being thus related, it is possible, when using the first figure, to derive any one from any two circularly, i.e., the conclusion from two premises and each premise from the conclusion and the remaining premise, as we pointed out in the Prior Analytics, where we treated the syllogism formally.
Quod sic patet. Sumantur tres termini convertibiles, scilicet risibile, animal rationale mortale, et homo, et syllogizetur sic: omne animal rationale mortale est risibile; omnis homo est animal rationale mortale; ergo omnis homo est risibilis. Et ex hac conclusione potest iterum concludi tam maior quam minor. Maior sic: omnis homo est risibilis; omne animal rationale mortale est homo; ergo omne animal rationale mortale est risibile. Minor sic: omne risibile est animal rationale mortale; omnis homo est risibilis; ergo omnis homo est animal rationale mortale.	The way it is done is this: take the three convertible terms, “risible,” “rational mortal animal” and “man,” and form the syllogism: Every rational mortal animal is risible; Every man is a rational mortal animal: Therefore, every man is risible. Then from the conclusion it is possible to conclude both the major and the minor; the major thus: Every man is risible; But every rational mortal animal is a man: Therefore, every rational mortal animal is risible and the minor thus: Every risible is a rational mortal animal; But every man is risible: Therefore, every man is a rational mortal animal.
lib. 1 l. 8 n. 9 Ostensum est autem in libro priorum quod in aliis figuris, scilicet in secunda et tertia, aut non fit circularis syllogismus, scilicet per quem ex conclusione possit syllogizari utraque praemissarum: aut si fiat, non erit ex acceptis, sed ex aliis propositionibus, quae non sumuntur in primo syllogismo.	However, it has also been proved in the Prior Analytics that in figures other than the first, namely, in the second and third, one cannot form a circular syllogism, i.e., one through which each of the premises can be syllogized from the conclusion; or if one is formed, it is done not by using the premises already used but by using propositions other than those which appear in the first syllogism.
Quod sic patet. In secunda figura non est conclusio nisi negativa: oportet autem alteram praemissarum esse negativam, et alteram affirmativam. Non enim ex duabus negativis potest aliquid concludi, nec ex duabus affirmativis potest concludi negativa. Non est ergo possibile quod ex conclusione et praemissa negativa concludatur affirmativa. Si ergo debet affirmativa probari, oportet quod per alias propositiones probetur, quae non sunt sumptae. Similiter in tertia figura non est conclusio nisi particularis. Oportet autem alteram praemissarum ad minus esse universalem. Si autem in praemissis sit aliqua particularis, non potest concludi universalis. Unde non potest esse quod in tertia figura ex conclusione syllogizetur utralibet praemissarum.	That this is so is obvious. For the second figure always yields a negative conclusion. Consequently, one premise must be affirmative and the other negative. However, it is true that if both are negative, nothing can be concluded; and if both are affirmative, a negative conclusion cannot follow. Therefore, it is not possible to use the negative conclusion and the negative premise to obtain the affirmative premise as a conclusion. Hence, if this affirmative is to be proved, it must be proved through propositions other than the ones originally used. Again, in the third figure the only conclusion ever obtained is particular. However, at least one premise must be universal; furthermore, if either premise is particular, a universal cannot be concluded. Hence it cannot occur that in the third figure each of the premises can be syllogized from the conclusion and the remaining premise.
Et eadem ratione apparet quod nec in prima figura talis circularis syllogismus potest fieri, per quem utraque praemissarum concludatur, nisi in primo modo, in quo solo concluditur universalis affirmativa. Nec etiam in hoc modo potest fieri talis syllogismus circularis, per quem utraque praemissarum concludatur, nisi sumantur tres termini aequales, idest convertibiles. Quod ex hoc patet. Oportet enim ex conclusione, et altera praemissarum conversa, concludere reliquam: sicut dictum est. Non autem potest utraque praemissarum converti, cum utraque sit universalis affirmativa, nisi in terminis convertibilibus.	For the same reasons it is obvious that such a circular syllogism (through which each premise could be concluded) cannot be formed in the first figure except in the first mode, which is the only one that concludes to a universal affirmative. Furthermore, even in this mode the only case in which a circular syllogism could be formed such that each of the premises could be concluded, is when the three terms employed are equal, i.e., convertible. The proof is this: The premise must be concluded from the conclusion and the converse of the other premise, as has been stated. But such a conversion of each premise is impossible (for each is universal), except when the terms happen to be equal.