Authors/Ockham/Summa Logicae/Book III-2/Chapter 23 - Revision history

Ragnarr49 at 01:09, 23 March 2025

2025-03-23T01:09:35Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:09, 22 March 2025
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	\|Ex praedictis patet quod omnis quaestio vel quaerit si est medium deveniendi in notitiam primi quaesiti, sicut quaestio quia est et quaestio si est, vel quaerit quid est illud medium, sicut quaestio quid est et quaestio propter quid est.		\|Ex praedictis patet quod omnis quaestio vel quaerit si est medium deveniendi in notitiam primi quaesiti, sicut quaestio quia est et quaestio si est, vel quaerit quid est illud medium, sicut quaestio quid est et quaestio propter quid est.

	\|From the above it is clear that every question either asks if there is a means of arriving at the knowledge of the first thing asked, like the question ~~because~~ it is and the question if it is, or asks what that means is, like the question what it is and the question because of what it is.		\|From the above it is clear that every question either asks if there is a means of arriving at the knowledge of the first thing asked, like the question how it is and the question if it is, or asks what that means is, like the question what it is and the question because of what it is.

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	\|Verbi gratia sit haec conclusio demonstrabilis ‘luna eclipsatur’. Isti conclusioni et demonstrationi per quam debet demonstrari praesupponendum est quia est et quid est de luna, et de eclipsi praesupponendum est quid est quod dicitur per nomen.		\|Verbi gratia sit haec conclusio demonstrabilis ‘luna eclipsatur’. Isti conclusioni et demonstrationi per quam debet demonstrari praesupponendum est quia est et quid est de luna, et de eclipsi praesupponendum est quid est quod dicitur per nomen.

	\|For example, let this be the demonstrable conclusion 'the moon is eclipsed'. To the conclusion and demonstration by which it must be shown, it must be presupposed ~~why~~ is and what is of the moon, and of the eclipse it must be presupposed what is said by the word.		\|For example, let this be the demonstrable conclusion 'the moon is eclipsed'. To the conclusion and demonstration by which it must be shown, it must be presupposed how is and what is of the moon, and of the eclipse it must be presupposed what is said by the word.

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Ragnarr49 at 00:43, 23 March 2025

2025-03-23T00:43:56Z

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	\|Primo enim potest quaerere an talis propositio sit vera. Secundo potest quaerere, supposito quod sit certum apud eum quod est propositio vera, quid est medium per quod potest fieri notum quod illa propositio est vera.		\|Primo enim potest quaerere an talis propositio sit vera. Secundo potest quaerere, supposito quod sit certum apud eum quod est propositio vera, quid est medium per quod potest fieri notum quod illa propositio est vera.

	\|For at first one may ask whether such a proposition is true. Secondly, he may ask, supposing that it is certain ~~with~~ him that a proposition is true, what is the means by which it can be known that ~~that~~ proposition is true.		\|For at first one may ask whether such a proposition is true. Secondly, he may ask, supposing that it is certain to him that a proposition is true, what is the means by which it can be known that this proposition is true.

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	\|Et tunc quaeritur medium propriissimum per quod sciri potest quod luna eclipsatur. Et ista est alia quaestio, scilicet ‘propter quid’. Et istae sunt duae quaestiones ponentes in numerum, quia videlicet quaerunt de rebus diversis, quia praedicatum et subiectum important diversas res, vel saltem eandem rem alio modo. Aliter potest demonstrator dubitare de aliquo an sit, puta potest dubitare an Deus sit vel esse possit, et tunc quaerit an sit medium deveniendi in notitiam huius et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam.		\|Et tunc quaeritur medium propriissimum per quod sciri potest quod luna eclipsatur. Et ista est alia quaestio, scilicet ‘propter quid’. Et istae sunt duae quaestiones ponentes in numerum, quia videlicet quaerunt de rebus diversis, quia praedicatum et subiectum important diversas res, vel saltem eandem rem alio modo. Aliter potest demonstrator dubitare de aliquo an sit, puta potest dubitare an Deus sit vel esse possit, et tunc quaerit an sit medium deveniendi in notitiam huius et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam.

	\|And then we ask for the most appropriate means by which it can be known that the moon is eclipsed. And that is another question, that is, 'because of what'. And these are the two questions ~~put in number~~, because they ask about different things, because the predicate and the subject mean different things, or at least the same thing in a different way. In another way, the demonstrator can doubt whether something exists, for example, he can doubt whether God is or can be, and then he asks whether there is a means of coming to the knowledge of this and what the means of coming to the knowledge of this is.		\|And then we ask for the most appropriate means by which it can be known that the moon is eclipsed. And that is another question, that is, 'because of what'. And these are the two questions enumerated, because they ask about different things, because the predicate and the subject mean different things, or at least the same thing in a different way. In another way, the demonstrator can doubt whether something exists, for example, he can doubt whether God is or can be, and then he asks whether there is a means of coming to the knowledge of this and what the means of coming to the knowledge of this is.

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	\|Hoc autem scito, quaerit ulterius: quid est? Sicut scito quod Deus est, quaerit: quid est Deus?		\|Hoc autem scito, quaerit ulterius: quid est? Sicut scito quod Deus est, quaerit: quid est Deus?

	\|Knowing this, he asks further: what is it? ~~Just as you know~~ that God is, he asks: what is God?		\|Knowing this, he asks further: what is it? So if it is known that God is, he asks: what is God?

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	\|Et tunc quaeritur medium propriissimum per quod sciri potest quod res est. Et istae duae quaestiones non ponunt in numerum, quia praedicatum et subiectum non significant distinctas res distinctis modis.		\|Et tunc quaeritur medium propriissimum per quod sciri potest quod res est. Et istae duae quaestiones non ponunt in numerum, quia praedicatum et subiectum non significant distinctas res distinctis modis.

	\|And then we ask for the most appropriate means by which it is possible to know what a thing is. And these two questions do not place in the ~~number~~, because the predicate and the subject do not signify distinct things in distinct ways.		\|And then we ask for the most appropriate means by which it is possible to know what a thing is. And these two questions do not place in the enumeration, because the predicate and the subject do not signify distinct things in distinct ways.

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	\|Ex quo patet quod omnis quaestio est quodammodo quaestio medii. Sed sciendum est quod medium hic non accipitur pro medio syllogistico, sicut dicit		\|Ex quo patet quod omnis quaestio est quodammodo quaestio medii. Sed sciendum est quod medium hic non accipitur pro medio syllogistico, sicut dicit

	\|From this it is clear that every problem is in some way the problem of the medium. But it must be known that the medium is not taken here as a syllogistic medium, ~~as says~~		\|From this it is clear that every problem is in some way the problem of the medium. But it must be known that the medium is not taken here as a syllogistic medium,

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	\|Lincolniensis, sed vocatur hic medium omne illud per quod devenit ratio in notitiam prius ignoti. Et ita experientia {{p\|546}} potest hic vocari medium, quia quandoque aliquis per experientiam cognoscit illud quod prius ignoravit. Oportet etiam scire quod quandoque omnes istae quatuor quaestiones eriguntur super aliquam conclusionem vel terminos illius conclusionis demonstrabilis, de quibus non est necesse praecognoscere quia est. Et in isto casu verum est quod dicit Lincolniensis, scilicet quod ‘‘quaerentes duo ut fines, scilicet si est et quia est, non quaerimus ut illud super quod fit discursus sive decursus in fines, nisi medium syllogisticum ordinatum in esse debito ad extrema. In isto enim casu omnes quaestiones quaerunt medium syllogisticum per quod demonstrari potest conclusio.		\|Lincolniensis, sed vocatur hic medium omne illud per quod devenit ratio in notitiam prius ignoti. Et ita experientia {{p\|546}} potest hic vocari medium, quia quandoque aliquis per experientiam cognoscit illud quod prius ignoravit. Oportet etiam scire quod quandoque omnes istae quatuor quaestiones eriguntur super aliquam conclusionem vel terminos illius conclusionis demonstrabilis, de quibus non est necesse praecognoscere quia est. Et in isto casu verum est quod dicit Lincolniensis, scilicet quod ‘‘quaerentes duo ut fines, scilicet si est et quia est, non quaerimus ut illud super quod fit discursus sive decursus in fines, nisi medium syllogisticum ordinatum in esse debito ad extrema. In isto enim casu omnes quaestiones quaerunt medium syllogisticum per quod demonstrari potest conclusio.

	\|Lincoln, but here is called a medium all that by which reason comes to ~~the notice~~ of the previously unknown. And thus experience can here be called a medium, because sometimes a person knows by experience what he was ignorant of before. It is also necessary to know that sometimes all these four questions are raised on some demonstrable conclusion or terms of that conclusion, about which it is not necessary to know in advance ~~because~~ it is. And in this case it is true what Lincoln says, namely that "seeking two as ends, namely, if there is and ~~because~~ it is, we do not seek as that upon which the discussion takes place or proceeds to the ends, unless the syllogistic medium is ordered into being due to the extremes." For in this case all the questions seek a syllogistic means by which the conclusion may be demonstrated.		\|as Lincoln says, but here is called a medium all that by which reason comes to knowledge of the previously unknown. And thus, experience can here be called a medium, because sometimes a person knows by experience what he was ignorant of before. It is also necessary to know that sometimes all these four questions are raised on some demonstrable conclusion or terms of that conclusion, about which it is not necessary to know in advance how it is. And in this case, it is true what Lincoln says, namely that "seeking two as ends, namely, if there is and how it is, we do not seek that upon which the discussion takes place or proceeds to the ends, unless the syllogistic medium is ordered into being due to the extremes." For in this case all the questions seek a syllogistic means by which the conclusion may be demonstrated.

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	\|{{p\|547}} Omnibus istis praesuppositis potest demonstrator dubitare an eclipsis sit in rerum natura vel esse possit. Et certificato quod sit, per experientiam, quia videmus defectum luminis in aliquo ex hoc quod lignum vel paries interponitur inter candelam et aliquid illuminabile; vel hoc facto noto, per aliquam aliam viam potest dubitari quid est carentia luminis etc..		\|{{p\|547}} Omnibus istis praesuppositis potest demonstrator dubitare an eclipsis sit in rerum natura vel esse possit. Et certificato quod sit, per experientiam, quia videmus defectum luminis in aliquo ex hoc quod lignum vel paries interponitur inter candelam et aliquid illuminabile; vel hoc facto noto, per aliquam aliam viam potest dubitari quid est carentia luminis etc..

	\|		\|With all these presuppositions, the demonstrator can doubt whether an eclipse exists in nature or can exist. And it is certified that it is, by experience, because we see a lack of light in some of this, when a wood or a wall is interposed between a candle and something that can be illuminated; or, knowing this fact, by some other means it may be doubted what is the lack of light, etc.

	With all these presuppositions, the demonstrator can doubt whether an eclipse exists in nature or can exist. And it is certified that it is, by experience, because we see a lack of light in some of this, when a wood or a wall is interposed between a candle and something that can be illuminated; or, knowing this fact, by some other means it may be doubted what is the lack of light, etc.

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	\|Et propter ista vult Philosophus quod in tali processu quaestio quid est et propter quid est idem sunt et quod medium et causa idem, quia medium syllogisticum explicat causam frequenter in tali processu propter quam ita est a parte rei sicut denotatur esse per conclusionem demonstrationis.		\|Et propter ista vult Philosophus quod in tali processu quaestio quid est et propter quid est idem sunt et quod medium et causa idem, quia medium syllogisticum explicat causam frequenter in tali processu propter quam ita est a parte rei sicut denotatur esse per conclusionem demonstrationis.

	\|And for this reason the Philosopher intends that in such a process the question of what is and why is are the same, and that the ~~medoum~~ and the cause are the same, because the syllogistic medium frequently explains the cause in such a process because of which it is so on the part of the thing as it is denoted to be by the conclusion of the demonstration.		\|And for this reason the Philosopher intends that in such a process the question of what is and why is are the same, and that the medium and the cause are the same, because the syllogistic medium frequently explains the cause in such a process because of which it is so on the part of the thing as it is denoted to be by the conclusion of the demonstration.

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Ragnarr49 at 20:49, 22 March 2025

2025-03-22T20:49:01Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:49, 22 March 2025
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	\|Et tunc quaeritur medium propriissimum per quod sciri potest quod luna eclipsatur. Et ista est alia quaestio, scilicet ‘propter quid’. Et istae sunt duae quaestiones ponentes in numerum, quia videlicet quaerunt de rebus diversis, quia praedicatum et subiectum important diversas res, vel saltem eandem rem alio modo. Aliter potest demonstrator dubitare de aliquo an sit, puta potest dubitare an Deus sit vel esse possit, et tunc quaerit an sit medium deveniendi in notitiam huius et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam.		\|Et tunc quaeritur medium propriissimum per quod sciri potest quod luna eclipsatur. Et ista est alia quaestio, scilicet ‘propter quid’. Et istae sunt duae quaestiones ponentes in numerum, quia videlicet quaerunt de rebus diversis, quia praedicatum et subiectum important diversas res, vel saltem eandem rem alio modo. Aliter potest demonstrator dubitare de aliquo an sit, puta potest dubitare an Deus sit vel esse possit, et tunc quaerit an sit medium deveniendi in notitiam huius et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam.

	\|And then we ask for the most appropriate means by which it can be known that the moon is eclipsed. And that is another question, that is, 'because of what'. And these are the two questions put in ~~the~~ number, because they ask about different things, because the predicate and the subject mean different things, or at least the same thing in a different way. In another way, the demonstrator can doubt whether something exists, for example, he can doubt whether God is or can be, and then he asks whether there is a means of coming to the knowledge of this and what the means of coming to the knowledge of this is.		\|And then we ask for the most appropriate means by which it can be known that the moon is eclipsed. And that is another question, that is, 'because of what'. And these are the two questions put in number, because they ask about different things, because the predicate and the subject mean different things, or at least the same thing in a different way. In another way, the demonstrator can doubt whether something exists, for example, he can doubt whether God is or can be, and then he asks whether there is a means of coming to the knowledge of this and what the means of coming to the knowledge of this is.

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Ragnarr49 at 11:35, 27 February 2025

2025-02-27T11:35:14Z

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	\|Et in isto casu quaestio quid est et propter quid est idem sunt. Et similiter medium et causa idem; hoc est, definitio passionis explicat causam per quam respondetur ad quaestionem factam per quid.		\|Et in isto casu quaestio quid est et propter quid est idem sunt. Et similiter medium et causa idem; hoc est, definitio passionis explicat causam per quam respondetur ad quaestionem factam per quid.

	\|And in this case the question of what it is and why it is are the same. And likewise the means and the cause are the same; that is, the definition of ~~a property~~ explains the reason by which it is answered to the question made by what.		\|And in this case the question of what it is and why it is are the same. And likewise the means and the cause are the same; that is, the definition of an attribute explains the reason by which it is answered to the question made by what.

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	\|Et cum constiterit quod luna est eclipsabilis propter hoc quod terra potest poni inter lunam et solem, cessat omnis quaestio circa istam conclusionem ‘luna eclipsatur’. Patet autem in isto processu quod definitio exprimens quid nominis passionis praesupponitur omni quaestioni et quod prima quaestio est quaestio si est de passione, quae quaerit medium, id est viam deveniendi in notitiam passionis, quod est possibilis, hoc est, quod esse de ea possibiliter praedicatur.		\|Et cum constiterit quod luna est eclipsabilis propter hoc quod terra potest poni inter lunam et solem, cessat omnis quaestio circa istam conclusionem ‘luna eclipsatur’. Patet autem in isto processu quod definitio exprimens quid nominis passionis praesupponitur omni quaestioni et quod prima quaestio est quaestio si est de passione, quae quaerit medium, id est viam deveniendi in notitiam passionis, quod est possibilis, hoc est, quod esse de ea possibiliter praedicatur.

	\|And when it is established that the moon is eclipsed because of the fact that the earth can be placed between the moon and the sun, all questions about the conclusion that 'the moon is eclipsed' cease. It is clear in this process that the definition expressing what the name of the ~~property~~ is is presupposed to every question and that the first question is the question if it is about effect, which seeks a medium, that is the way to arrive at the knowledge of effect, which is possible, that is, that being is possibly predicated of it.		\|And when it is established that the moon is eclipsed because of the fact that the earth can be placed between the moon and the sun, all questions about the conclusion that 'the moon is eclipsed' cease. It is clear in this process that the definition expressing what the name of the attribute is is presupposed to every question and that the first question is the question if it is about effect, which seeks a medium, that is the way to arrive at the knowledge of effect, which is possible, that is, that being is possibly predicated of it.

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	\|Secunda autem quaestio est quaestio quid est de passione, quia illud quod definitio sua exprimens quid nominis explicat in generali illa quaestio quaerit magis in speciali. Quod quidem quaesitum est generale ad illud propter quod luna eclipsatur, quia corpus opacum est commune ad terram.		\|Secunda autem quaestio est quaestio quid est de passione, quia illud quod definitio sua exprimens quid nominis explicat in generali illa quaestio quaerit magis in speciali. Quod quidem quaesitum est generale ad illud propter quod luna eclipsatur, quia corpus opacum est commune ad terram.

	\|And the second question is the question of what is ~~a property~~, because that which, expressing its definition, explains what the name explains in general, that question seeks more in particular. This is indeed a general inquiry into that for which the moon is eclipsed, because an opaque body is common to the earth.		\|And the second question is the question of what is an attribute, because that which, expressing its definition, explains what the name explains in general, that question seeks more in particular. This is indeed a general inquiry into that for which the moon is eclipsed, because an opaque body is common to the earth.

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	\|Scito autem si est et quid est de passione in speciali, quaeritur ulterius an passio sit praedicabilis de isto subiecto et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam illius. Quo scito quaeritur in speciali causa propter quam passio competit isti subiecto, et ita quid et propter quid quaerunt idem; sed quaestio quid est de passione quaerit magis in generali et quaestio propter quid quaerit magis in speciali, quamvis forte quandoque sit possibile quod utraque quaerat idem aeque {{p\|548}} in speciali.		\|Scito autem si est et quid est de passione in speciali, quaeritur ulterius an passio sit praedicabilis de isto subiecto et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam illius. Quo scito quaeritur in speciali causa propter quam passio competit isti subiecto, et ita quid et propter quid quaerunt idem; sed quaestio quid est de passione quaerit magis in generali et quaestio propter quid quaerit magis in speciali, quamvis forte quandoque sit possibile quod utraque quaerat idem aeque {{p\|548}} in speciali.

	\|Now knowing if it is and what it is about the ~~property~~ in particular, it is further asked whether the ~~property~~ is predicable of this subject and what is the means of arriving at the knowledge of it. Wherefore it is inquired in a special case, on account of what ~~property~~ belongs to the subject, and thus what and for what reason they seek the same thing; but the question of what the ~~property~~ is asks more in general, and the question because of what it asks more in the particular, although it may sometimes be possible that both seek the same in the particular.		\|Now knowing if it is and what it is about the attribute in particular, it is further asked whether the attribute is predicable of this subject and what is the means of arriving at the knowledge of it. Wherefore it is inquired in a special case, on account of what attribute belongs to the subject, and thus what and for what reason they seek the same thing; but the question of what the attribute is asks more in general, and the question because of what it asks more in the particular, although it may sometimes be possible that both seek the same in the particular.

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Ragnarr49 at 02:47, 27 February 2025

2025-02-27T02:47:55Z

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	\|Et in isto casu quaestio quid est et propter quid est idem sunt. Et similiter medium et causa idem; hoc est, definitio passionis explicat causam per quam respondetur ad quaestionem factam per quid.		\|Et in isto casu quaestio quid est et propter quid est idem sunt. Et similiter medium et causa idem; hoc est, definitio passionis explicat causam per quam respondetur ad quaestionem factam per quid.

	\|And in this case the question of what it is and why it is are the same. And likewise the means and the cause are the same; that is, the definition of ~~passion~~ explains the reason by which it is answered to the question made by what.		\|And in this case the question of what it is and why it is are the same. And likewise the means and the cause are the same; that is, the definition of a property explains the reason by which it is answered to the question made by what.

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	\|Et cum constiterit quod luna est eclipsabilis propter hoc quod terra potest poni inter lunam et solem, cessat omnis quaestio circa istam conclusionem ‘luna eclipsatur’. Patet autem in isto processu quod definitio exprimens quid nominis passionis praesupponitur omni quaestioni et quod prima quaestio est quaestio si est de passione, quae quaerit medium, id est viam deveniendi in notitiam passionis, quod est possibilis, hoc est, quod esse de ea possibiliter praedicatur.		\|Et cum constiterit quod luna est eclipsabilis propter hoc quod terra potest poni inter lunam et solem, cessat omnis quaestio circa istam conclusionem ‘luna eclipsatur’. Patet autem in isto processu quod definitio exprimens quid nominis passionis praesupponitur omni quaestioni et quod prima quaestio est quaestio si est de passione, quae quaerit medium, id est viam deveniendi in notitiam passionis, quod est possibilis, hoc est, quod esse de ea possibiliter praedicatur.

	\|And when it is established that the moon is eclipsed because of the fact that the earth can be placed between the moon and the sun, all questions about the conclusion that 'the moon is eclipsed' cease. It is clear in this process that the definition expressing what the name of ~~effect~~ is is presupposed to every question and that the first question is the question if it is about effect, which seeks a medium, that is the way to arrive at the knowledge of effect, which is possible, that is, that being is possibly predicated of it.		\|And when it is established that the moon is eclipsed because of the fact that the earth can be placed between the moon and the sun, all questions about the conclusion that 'the moon is eclipsed' cease. It is clear in this process that the definition expressing what the name of the property is is presupposed to every question and that the first question is the question if it is about effect, which seeks a medium, that is the way to arrive at the knowledge of effect, which is possible, that is, that being is possibly predicated of it.

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	\|Secunda autem quaestio est quaestio quid est de passione, quia illud quod definitio sua exprimens quid nominis explicat in generali illa quaestio quaerit magis in speciali. Quod quidem quaesitum est generale ad illud propter quod luna eclipsatur, quia corpus opacum est commune ad terram.		\|Secunda autem quaestio est quaestio quid est de passione, quia illud quod definitio sua exprimens quid nominis explicat in generali illa quaestio quaerit magis in speciali. Quod quidem quaesitum est generale ad illud propter quod luna eclipsatur, quia corpus opacum est commune ad terram.

	\|And the second question is the question of what is ~~effect~~, because that which, expressing its definition, explains what the name explains in general, that question seeks more in particular. This is indeed a general inquiry into that for which the moon is eclipsed, because an opaque body is common to the earth.		\|And the second question is the question of what is a property, because that which, expressing its definition, explains what the name explains in general, that question seeks more in particular. This is indeed a general inquiry into that for which the moon is eclipsed, because an opaque body is common to the earth.

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	\|Scito autem si est et quid est de passione in speciali, quaeritur ulterius an passio sit praedicabilis de isto subiecto et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam illius. Quo scito quaeritur in speciali causa propter quam passio competit isti subiecto, et ita quid et propter quid quaerunt idem; sed quaestio quid est de passione quaerit magis in generali et quaestio propter quid quaerit magis in speciali, quamvis forte quandoque sit possibile quod utraque quaerat idem aeque {{p\|548}} in speciali.		\|Scito autem si est et quid est de passione in speciali, quaeritur ulterius an passio sit praedicabilis de isto subiecto et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam illius. Quo scito quaeritur in speciali causa propter quam passio competit isti subiecto, et ita quid et propter quid quaerunt idem; sed quaestio quid est de passione quaerit magis in generali et quaestio propter quid quaerit magis in speciali, quamvis forte quandoque sit possibile quod utraque quaerat idem aeque {{p\|548}} in speciali.

	\|Now knowing if it is and what it is about the ~~effect~~ in particular, it is further asked whether the ~~effect~~ is predicable of this subject and what is the means of arriving at the knowledge of it. Wherefore it is inquired in a special case, on account of what ~~effect~~ belongs to the subject, and thus what and for what reason they seek the same thing; but the question of what the ~~effect~~ is asks more in general, and the question because of what it asks more in the particular, although it may sometimes be possible that both seek the same in the particular.		\|Now knowing if it is and what it is about the property in particular, it is further asked whether the property is predicable of this subject and what is the means of arriving at the knowledge of it. Wherefore it is inquired in a special case, on account of what property belongs to the subject, and thus what and for what reason they seek the same thing; but the question of what the property is asks more in general, and the question because of what it asks more in the particular, although it may sometimes be possible that both seek the same in the particular.

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Ragnarr49 at 20:56, 9 February 2025

2025-02-09T20:56:03Z

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Edward Ockham at 11:11, 13 June 2015

2015-06-13T11:11:40Z

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{{Nextpage|[[../Chapter 22|Chapter 22]]|[[../Chapter 24|Chapter 24]]}}

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|{{p|544}} CAP. 23. DE SCIENTIA ET DEMONSTRATIONE PROPTER QUID ET QUOT SUNT QUAESTIONES.

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|Post scientiam et demonstrationem quia sequitur videre de scientia et demonstratione propter quid. Ad cuius habendam notitiam oportet primo scire quod, sicut tactum est prius, omne demonstrabile est dubitabile et per consequens quaeribile. Non tamen e converso omne dubitabile est demonstrabile nec per consequens omne quaeribile est demonstrabile.

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|Unde ut sciatur quid est demonstrabile demonstratione propter quid et quid non, oportet primo scire quot sunt dubitabilia et quaeribilia ad demonstrationem pertinentia. Et est sciendum, secundum Aristotelem, quod quatuor sunt genera quaeribilium sicut quatuor sunt genera vere scitorum, hoc est, evidenter cognitorum.

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|Omnis enim demonstrator, si dubitet aliquid quod debet scire, aut dubitat de aliqua propositione in qua praedicatum importat aliam rem --- vel eandem rem alio modo --- ab illo quod importatur per subiectum.

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|Sicut potest dubitare de tali propositione ‘luna est eclipsabilis’, et tunc potest tripliciter quaerere circa talem propositionem.

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|Primo enim potest quaerere an talis propositio sit vera. Secundo potest quaerere, supposito quod sit certum apud eum quod est propositio vera, quid est medium per quod potest fieri notum quod illa propositio est vera.

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|Et istos duos modos quaerendi comprehendit Aristoteles sub quaestione ‘quia est’, ita quod haec coniunctio ‘quia’ non est ibi nota quaerendi, quasi per hanc coniunctionem ‘quia’ fiat quaestio, sed magis est nota terminandi et respondendi.

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|Scito autem quod haec propositio est vera, sive scito quod luna eclipsatur, et scito quod est aliquod medium per quod certificari potest quod luna eclipsatur, et scito quid est illud medium, puta scitur aliquis effectus vel aliquid {{p|545}} aliud per quod certificari potest quod luna eclipsatur, contingit ulterius quaerere quare vel propter quid luna eclipsatur.

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|Unde potest aliquis scire evidenter quod luna eclipsatur, et per consequens habet aliquod medium, hoc est, habet aliquid per quod scitur quod luna eclipsatur et tamen potest ignorare causam quare luna eclipsatur, et ita potest quaerere quare luna eclipsatur.

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|Et tunc quaeritur medium propriissimum per quod sciri potest quod luna eclipsatur. Et ista est alia quaestio, scilicet ‘propter quid’. Et istae sunt duae quaestiones ponentes in numerum, quia videlicet quaerunt de rebus diversis, quia praedicatum et subiectum important diversas res, vel saltem eandem rem alio modo. Aliter potest demonstrator dubitare de aliquo an sit, puta potest dubitare an Deus sit vel esse possit, et tunc quaerit an sit medium deveniendi in notitiam huius et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam.

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|Hoc autem scito, quaerit ulterius: quid est? Sicut scito quod Deus est, quaerit: quid est Deus?

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|Et tunc quaeritur medium propriissimum per quod sciri potest quod res est. Et istae duae quaestiones non ponunt in numerum, quia praedicatum et subiectum non significant distinctas res distinctis modis.

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|Ex praedictis patet quod omnis quaestio vel quaerit si est medium deveniendi in notitiam primi quaesiti, sicut quaestio quia est et quaestio si est, vel quaerit quid est illud medium, sicut quaestio quid est et quaestio propter quid est.

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|Ex quo patet quod omnis quaestio est quodammodo quaestio medii. Sed sciendum est quod medium hic non accipitur pro medio syllogistico, sicut dicit

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|Lincolniensis, sed vocatur hic medium omne illud per quod devenit ratio in notitiam prius ignoti. Et ita experientia {{p|546}} potest hic vocari medium, quia quandoque aliquis per experientiam cognoscit illud quod prius ignoravit. Oportet etiam scire quod quandoque omnes istae quatuor quaestiones eriguntur super aliquam conclusionem vel terminos illius conclusionis demonstrabilis, de quibus non est necesse praecognoscere quia est. Et in isto casu verum est quod dicit Lincolniensis, scilicet quod ‘‘quaerentes duo ut fines, scilicet si est et quia est, non quaerimus ut illud super quod fit discursus sive decursus in fines, nisi medium syllogisticum ordinatum in esse debito ad extrema. In isto enim casu omnes quaestiones quaerunt medium syllogisticum per quod demonstrari potest conclusio.

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|Verbi gratia si haec conclusio sit demonstrabilis ‘luna eclipsatur’ et de luna non potest esse quaestio, cum debeat praecognosci quia est, non potest fieri quaestio nisi utrum luna eclipsetur vel propter quid luna eclipsatur vel si est eclipsis vel quid est eclipsis.

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|Et omnes istae quaestiones quaerunt aliquo modo medium per quod demonstrari potest quod luna eclipsatur.

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|Et in isto casu quaestio quid est et propter quid est idem sunt. Et similiter medium et causa idem; hoc est, definitio passionis explicat causam per quam respondetur ad quaestionem factam per quid.

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|Et ita tunc medium et causa idem; hoc est, medium syllogisticum explicat causam propter quam ita est sicut denotatur per conclusionem.

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|Verbi gratia sit haec conclusio demonstrabilis ‘luna eclipsatur’. Isti conclusioni et demonstrationi per quam debet demonstrari praesupponendum est quia est et quid est de luna, et de eclipsi praesupponendum est quid est quod dicitur per nomen.

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|Unde praesupponitur ista definitio exprimens quid nominis ‘eclipsis est carentia luminis in aliquo receptivo ex interpositione corporis impedientis luminosum causare lumen in corpore receptivo luminis’.

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|{{p|547}} Omnibus istis praesuppositis potest demonstrator dubitare an eclipsis sit in rerum natura vel esse possit. Et certificato quod sit, per experientiam, quia videmus defectum luminis in aliquo ex hoc quod lignum vel paries interponitur inter candelam et aliquid illuminabile; vel hoc facto noto, per aliquam aliam viam potest dubitari quid est carentia luminis etc..

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|Quod non est aliud quam dubitare cuiusmodi est illud corpus quod debet impedire influentiam lucis. Et notificato quod est corpus opacum vel aliquid tale, potest ulterius quaeri utrum luna sit eclipsabilis.

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|Et ostenso per experientiam vel per aliam viam quod sic, et ita dato aliquo medio per quod evidenter cognoscitur quod luna est eclipsabilis, potest quaeri ulterius quare luna est eclipsabilis.

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|Et cum constiterit quod luna est eclipsabilis propter hoc quod terra potest poni inter lunam et solem, cessat omnis quaestio circa istam conclusionem ‘luna eclipsatur’. Patet autem in isto processu quod definitio exprimens quid nominis passionis praesupponitur omni quaestioni et quod prima quaestio est quaestio si est de passione, quae quaerit medium, id est viam deveniendi in notitiam passionis, quod est possibilis, hoc est, quod esse de ea possibiliter praedicatur.

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|Secunda autem quaestio est quaestio quid est de passione, quia illud quod definitio sua exprimens quid nominis explicat in generali illa quaestio quaerit magis in speciali. Quod quidem quaesitum est generale ad illud propter quod luna eclipsatur, quia corpus opacum est commune ad terram.

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|Scito autem si est et quid est de passione in speciali, quaeritur ulterius an passio sit praedicabilis de isto subiecto et quid est medium deveniendi in notitiam illius. Quo scito quaeritur in speciali causa propter quam passio competit isti subiecto, et ita quid et propter quid quaerunt idem; sed quaestio quid est de passione quaerit magis in generali et quaestio propter quid quaerit magis in speciali, quamvis forte quandoque sit possibile quod utraque quaerat idem aeque {{p|548}} in speciali.

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|Et propter ista vult Philosophus quod in tali processu quaestio quid est et propter quid est idem sunt et quod medium et causa idem, quia medium syllogisticum explicat causam frequenter in tali processu propter quam ita est a parte rei sicut denotatur esse per conclusionem demonstrationis.

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|In multis autem aliis casibus non sunt ista vera nec multa alia quae dicit Aristoteles circa istam materiam, nec in aliis vult ea intelligi generaliter.

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==Notes==
{{reflist}} [[Category:Untranslated]]